List of calques

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A calque /ˈkælk/ or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal, word-for-word (Latin: "verbum pro verbo") or root-for-root translation. This list contains examples of calques in various languages.

English

From Arabic

Straw that broke the camel's back القشة التي قصمت ظهر البعير alqassha alathee qassamat dhahra al baeer . the straw that broke the back of the camel[citation needed]

From Chinese

[6][7][8]

From French

From German or Dutch

  • Masterpiece: probably translation of Dutch meesterstuk or German Meisterstück: Dutch meester and German Meister, master + Dutch stuk and German Stück, piece of work.[20] (The Dutch translation of masterpiece is meesterwerk, the German translation is Meisterwerk.)

From Dutch

From German

From Hebrew

  • Scapegoat is a mistaken calque of עזאזל (Azazel) as ez ozel ( literally, "the goat that departs," hence "[e]scape goat"). The mistranslation is attributed to William Tyndale in his 1530 translation of the Bible.[43]

From Latin

  • Commonplace calques locus commūnis (referring to a generally applicable literary passage), which itself is a calque of Greek koinos topos[44]
  • Devil's advocate calques advocātus diabolī, referring to an official appointed to present arguments against a proposed canonization or beatification in the Catholic Church[45]
  • Wisdom tooth calques dēns sapientiae[46]
  • Milky Way calques via lactea[47]
  • Rest in Peace calques requiescat in pace[48]
  • In a nutshell calques in nuce[49][50]

From Spanish

From other languages

Latin

  • Latin compassio calques Greek sympathia "sympathy" (Latin: "suffering with", Greek: "suffering together")
  • Latin deus ex machina calques Greek apo mechanēs theos" (Latin: "god out of the machine", Greek: "out of the machine, god")
  • Latin insectus calques Greek entomos ("insect", from words meaning "to cut into" in the respective languages)[54]
  • Latin musculus "muscle" (= "common house mouse", literally "little mouse" from mus "mouse") calques Greek mys "muscle" (= "mouse")
  • Latin magnanimus calques Greek megalopsychos (from words meaning "great-souled" in the respective languages)[55]

Romance languages

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  • French lune de miel, Catalan lluna de mel, Spanish luna de miel, Portuguese lua-de-mel, Italian luna di miele and Romanian luna de miere calque English honeymoon
  • French gratte-ciel, Catalan gratacels, Spanish rascacielos, Portuguese arranha-céus, Romanian zgârie-nori and Italian grattacielo calque English skyscraper
  • French sabot de Denver calques English Denver boot
  • French jardin d'enfants, Spanish jardín de infancia and Portuguese Jardim de infância calque German Kindergarten (children's garden)
  • Spanish baloncesto and Italian pallacanestro calque English basketball
  • Italian pallavolo calques English volleyball

French

  • French courriel (contraction of courrier électronique) calques English email (contraction of electronic mail)
  • French disque dur calques English hard disk
  • French carte mère calques English motherboard
  • French eau de vie calques Latin aqua vitae
  • French en ligne calques English online
  • French hors-ligne (literally: "out of line, off line") calques English offline
  • French haute résolution calques English high resolution
  • French haute tension calques English high voltage
  • French disque compact calques English compact disc
  • French haute fidélité calques English hi-fi (high fidelity)
  • French large bande calques English broadband
  • French modulation de fréquence calques English frequency modulation (FM)
  • French média de masse calques English mass media
  • French seconde main calques English second hand
  • French sortir du placard calques English to come out of the closet
  • French surhomme calques German Übermensch (Nietzsche's concept)
  • French souris calques English mouse (computer peripheral)
  • French OVNI (Objet Volant Non Identifié) calques English UFO (Unidentified Flying Object)
  • In some dialects of French, the English term "weekend" becomes la fin de semaine ("the end of week"), a calque, but in some it is left untranslated as le week-end, a loanword.
  • French cor anglais (literally English horn) is a near-calque of English French horn. In English cor anglais refers to a completely different musical instrument.

Spanish

Many calques found in Southwestern US Spanish, come from English:

  • Spanish escuela alta calques English high school (secundaria or escuela secundaria in Standard Spanish)
  • Spanish grado (de escuela) calques English grade (in school) (nota in Standard Spanish)

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Also technological terms calqued from English are used throughout the Spanish-speaking world:

  • Spanish rascacielos calques English skyscraper
  • Spanish tarjeta de crédito calques English credit card
  • Spanish alta tecnología calques English high technology
  • Spanish disco compacto calques English compact disc
  • Spanish correo electrónico calques English electronic mail
  • Spanish alta resolución calques English high resolution
  • Spanish enlace calques English link (Internet)
  • Spanish ratón calques English mouse (computer)
  • Spanish nave espacial calques English spaceship
  • Spanish en un momento dado calques Dutch op een gegeven moment (At a certain moment)[56]

Italian

  • Italian aria condizionata calques English air conditioned
  • Italian fine settimana calques English week-end
  • Italian ferrovia (railway: lit. "iron road") calques French Chemin de fer

Germanic languages

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Afrikaans and Dutch

  • Afrikaans aartappel and Dutch aardappel calque French pomme de terre (English potato "earth apple")
  • Afrikaans besigheid calques English business
  • Afrikaans e-pos calques English e-mail
  • Afrikaans hardeskyf and Dutch harde schijf calque English hard disk
  • Afrikaans klankbaan calques English sound track
  • Afrikaans kleurskuifie calques English colour slide
  • Afrikaans sleutelbord calques English keyboard
  • Afrikaans tuisblad calques English homepage
  • Afrikaans wolkekrabber and Dutch wolkenkrabber calque German Wolkenkratzer (which itself calques English sky scraper).

German

  • Fußball calques English "football", referring specifically to association football
  • Teddybär calques English teddy bear
  • Wolkenkratzer calques English skyscraper
  • Flutlicht calques English floodlight
  • Datenverarbeitung calques English data processing
  • Großmutter and Großvater calques French grand-mère and grand-père
  • Rundreise calques French tournée
  • Fernsehen calques English television (from the Greek affix tele- "far" and Latin visio "sight")

Icelandic

  • Icelandic rafmagn, "electricity," is a half-calqued coinage that literally means "amber power."
    • raf translates the Greek root ηλεκτρον (elektron), which means "amber"
    • magn, "power," is descriptive of electricity's nature but not a direct calque from the source word "electricity"
  • One of the early suggestions for an Icelandic translation of helicopter was þyrilvængja, twirling wings, a calque of the Greek helico-pteron. This was later replaced with þyrla.

Dano-Norwegian

Note: From a technical standpoint, Danish and the bokmål standard of Norwegian are the same language, with minor spelling and pronunciation differences (equivalent to British and American English). For this reason, they will share a section.

  • Danish børnehave and Norwegian barnehage calque German Kindergarten: barne = børne = Kinder = children; hage = have = Garten = garden[57]
  • hjemmeside calques English home page.[58]
  • Danish hjerneflugt and Norwegian hjerneflukt (literally, brain flight) calque English brain drain.[59]
  • Danish idiotsikker calques English "foolproof".[60]
  • loppemarked calques French marché aux puces (flea market, itself a calque from the French).[61]
  • mandag (Monday), from Old Norse mánadagr ("moon day") calques Latin dies lunæ.[62]
  • Danish overhoved and Norwegian overhode (head of a family, chief) calques German Oberhaupt (ober "over", Haupt "head").[63]
  • Danish samvittighed and Norwegian samvittighet (conscience) calques Latin (through Low German) conscientia (com "with", scire "to know").[64]
    • From sam- (co-) and vittig (today meaning "funny" but which stems from Low German, where it meant "reasonable", related to "vite" (to know) and English "wit".)
  • Norwegian tenåring calques English teenager: femten = fifteen, åring = annual harvest[65]

Swedish

  • tonåring calques English teen-ager: femton = fifteen, åring = annual harvest

Swedish

  • skyskrapa calques skyscraper.

Slavic languages

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Serbian

  • Serbian 'misliti izvan kutije' calques English 'to think outside of the box':
    • Sr. 'misliti' = Eng. 'to think'
    • Sr. 'izvan' = Eng. 'outside'
    • Sr. 'kutija' = Eng. 'box'

Macedonian

  • Macedonian ракопис (rakopis) calques Latin-derived 'manuscript' and 'handwriting':
    • Mac. root рака (raka) = Lat. manus = 'hand'
    • Mac. root пис- (pis-) = Lat. scribo = 'to write'
  • Macedonian правопис (pravopis) calques Greek-derived 'orthography':
    • Mac. root право (pravo) = Gr. ορθός (orthos) = 'correct';
    • Mac. root пис- (pis-) = Gr. γράφειν (graphein) = 'to write'
  • Macedonian православие (pravoslavie) calques Greek-derived 'orthodoxy':
    • Mac. root право (pravo) = Gr. ορθός (orthos) = 'correct';
    • Mac. root славие (slavie) = Gr. δοξα (doxa) = 'glorification'

In more recent times, the Macedonian language has calqued new words from other prestige languages including German, French and English.

  • Macedonian натчовек (natčovek) = calques German-derived 'overman' (Übermensch)
    • Mac. root над- (nad-) = Ger. über = 'over'
    • Mac. root човек (čovek, man) = Ger. mensch = 'people'
  • Macedonian облакодер (oblakoder) = calques English skyscraper:
    • Mac. root облак (oblak, cloud)
    • Mac. root дере (dere, to flay)
  • Macedonian клучен збор (klučen zbor) = calques English keyword:
    • Mac. root клуч (kluč, key)
    • Mac. root збор (zbor, word)

Some words were originally calqued into Russian and then absorbed into Macedonian, considering the close relatedness of the two languages. Therefore, many of these calques can also be considered Russianisms.

Russian

The poet Aleksandr Pushkin (1799–1837) was perhaps the most influential among the Russian literary figures who would transform the modern Russian language and vastly expand its ability to handle abstract and scientific concepts by importing the sophisticated vocabulary of Western intellectuals.

Although some Western vocabulary entered the language as loanwords – e.g., Italian salvietta, "napkin," was simply Russified in sound and spelling to салфетка (salfetka) – Pushkin and those he influenced most often preferred to render foreign borrowings into Russian by calquing. Compound words were broken down to their component roots, which were then translated piece-by-piece to their Slavic equivalents. But not all of the coinages caught on and became permanent additions to the lexicon; for example, любомудрие (ljubomudrie) was promoted by 19th-century Russian intellectuals as a calque of "philosophy," but the word eventually fell out of fashion, and modern Russian instead uses the loanword философия (filosofija).

  • Russian любомудрие (ljubomudrie) calqued Greek-derived 'philosophy':
    • Russ. root любить (ljubit' ) = Gr. φιλεῖν (filein) = 'to love';
    • Russ. root мудрость (mudrost' ) = Gr. σοφία (sofia) = 'wisdom'
  • Russian зависимость (zavisimost' ) calques Latin-derived 'dependence':
    • Russ. root за (za) = Lat. de = 'down from'
    • Russ. root висеть (viset' ) = Lat. pendere = 'to hang; to dangle'
  • Russian совпадение (sovpadenije) calques Latin-derived 'coincidence':
    • Russ. prefix со- (so) = Lat. co- = 'in; with; together'
    • Russ. prefix в- (v) = Lat. in- = 'in; into'
    • Russ. root падать (padat' ) = Lat. cidere = 'to fall'
  • Russian полуостров (poluostrov) calques German Halbinsel, both meaning 'peninsula':
    • Russ. root полу- (polu-) = Ger. halb = 'half; semi-'
    • Russ. root остров (ostrov) = Ger. Insel = 'island'
  • Russian детский сад (detskij sad) calques German Kindergarten, both literally suggesting 'children's garden'

Greek

  • Διαδίκτυο from English Internet
  • Ποδόσφαιρο from English "football", referring specifically to association football
  • Τηλεόραση from Television

Irish

Finnish

Since Finnish, a Uralic language, differs radically in pronunciation and orthography from Indo-European languages, most loans adopted in Finnish either are calques or soon become such as foreign words are translated into Finnish. Examples include:

  • from Greek: sarvikuono (rhinoceros, from Greek "rinokeros"),
  • from Latin: viisaudenhammas (wisdom tooth, from Latin "dens sapientiae"),
  • from English: jalkapallo (English "football", specifically referring to association football),
  • from English: koripallo (English "basketball"),
  • from English: kovalevy (English "hard disk"),
  • from French: kirpputori (flea market, French "marché aux puces"),
  • from German: lastentarha (German "Kindergarten"),
  • from German: panssarivaunu (German "Panzerwagen"),
  • from Swedish: pesukarhu (raccoon, from Swedish "tvättbjörn" and ultimately German "Waschbär"),
  • from Swedish: moottoritie (highway, from Swedish "motorväg" and ultimately German "autobahn"),
  • from Chinese: aivopesu (brainwash, from Chinese "xi nao"),
  • from Spanish: siniverinen (blue-blooded, from Spanish "de sangre azul")

Modern Hebrew

When Jews make aliyah to Israel, they often Hebraize their surnames. One approach to doing so was by calque from the original (often German or Yiddish) surname. For instance, Imi Lichtenfield, founder of the martial art Krav Maga, became Imi Sde-Or. Both last names mean "light field". For more examples and other approaches, see the article on Hebraization of surnames.

  • mesilat barzel (obsolete term for railway) from German Eisenbahn (iron track); "sach-rachok" (obsolete term for telephone) from German "Fernsprecher" (itself a calque from Greek "telephone")
  • "zarkor" (searchlight) from German "Scheinwerfer" (light-thrower=>zorek-or, contracted to "zarkor")
  • iton (newspaper) from German and Yiddish Zeitung
  • tappuach adamah (potato) from French pomme-de-terre
  • gan yeladim from German Kindergarten
  • kaduregel (כדורגל) (football, specifically association football/soccer) from English football; "kadursal" (basketball); "kaduryad" (handball);...
  • "kelev yam" (seal) from German "Seehund" ("sea dog")
  • "karnaf" (contraction of "keren af"/"nosehorn") from Greek rhinoceros, possibly via German Nashorn
  • names of many chemical elements are calqued from German and/or Greek: "meiman" (hydrogen) from Wasserstoff, "pachman" (carbon) from Kohlstoff, "chankan" (nitrogen) from Stickstoff, "chamtzan" (oxygen) from Sauerstoff, zarkhan (phosphorus) from Greek, ... Some others are derived from Biblical or Mishnaic Hebrew words: kesef (silver), barzel (iron), nechoshet (copper), zahav (gold), oferet (lead), ashlagan (potassium, from "ashlag"=potash),
  • many computing terms are calqued from English: "luach em" (motherboard), "me`abed" (processor), "natav" (router), akhbar (mouse), cartis reshet (network card), sapak koach (power supply), mat`en (charger),... Other terms are loanwords: "disq" (disk), ... Yet others are 'native' Hebrew words, either newly coined or adapted from earlier usage: "mikledet" (keyboard), "madpeset" (printer, by analogy with "mekhonat dfus"/printing press), "reshet" (network, from Hebrew for a net), ...

According to linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann, the more contributing languages have a structurally identical expression, the more likely it is to be calqued into the target language. In Israeli (his term for "Modern Hebrew") one uses má nishmà, lit. "what's heard?", with the meaning of "what's up?". Zuckermann argues that this is a calque not only of the Yiddish expression Was hört sich? (usually pronounced v(o)sérts´kh), lit. "what's heard?", meaning "what's up?", but also of the parallel expressions in Polish, Russian and Romanian. Whereas most revivalists were native Yiddish-speakers, many first speakers of Modern Hebrew spoke Russian and Polish too. So a Polish speaker in the 1930s might have used má nishmà not (only) due to Yiddish Was hört sich? but rather (also) due to Polish Co słychać? A Russian Jew might have used ma nishma due to Что слышно? (pronounced chto slyshno) and a Romanian Israeli would echo ce se aude.[66] According to Zuckermann, such multi-sourced calquing is a manifestation of the Congruence principle.[67]

Malayalam

Modern Malayalam is replete with calques from English. The calques manifest themselves as idioms and expressions and many have gone on to become clichés. However standalone words are very few. The following is a list of commonly used calque phrases/expressions.All of these are exact translations of the corresponding English phrases.

  1. Simha bhagam (സിംഹ ഭാഗം)- Lion's share
  2. Varikalkidayil vaayikuka (വരികള്‍ക്കിടയില്‍ വായിക്കുക)reading between the lines
  3. Chuvarazhuthu (ചുവരെഴുത്തു) the writing on the wall
  4. Moola kallu (മൂലക്കല്ല്) cornerstone
  5. Naazhikakallu (നാഴികക്കല്ല്) milestone
  6. Ooshmala varavelppu (ഊഷ്മ്ല വരവേല്‍പ്പ്) warm welcome
  7. Thanuppan prathikaranam (തണുപ്പന്‍ പ്രതികരണം) cold response
  8. Sheetayuddham (ശീതയുദ്ധം) Cold war
  9. Hridayabhedakam (ഹൃദയഭേദകം) Heart rending/breaking
  10. Chekuttaanum kadalinumidayil(ചെകുത്താനും കടലിനുമിടയില്‍)between the devil and the sea
  11. vazhivittu sahaayikkuka (വഴിവിട്ടു സഹായിക്കുക)go out of one's way
  12. kuthira kachavadam (കുതിര കച്ചവടം) horse trading
  13. mrigeeya bhooripaksham (മൃഗീയ ഭൂരിപക്ഷം) monstrous majority
  14. kavya neethi (കാവ്യനീതി) poetic justice.
  15. ambara chumbikal(അംബരചുംബികൾ) skyscrapers literally skykissers

References

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  2. brainwashing. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  3. http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/chop-chop.html
  4. lose face – Definitions from Dictionary.com
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  6. Novotná, Z., "Contributions to the Study of Loan-Words and Hybrid Words in Modern Chinese", Archiv Orientalni, (Prague), No. 35 (1967), pp. 613–648. (In English; examples of loan words and calques in Chinese)
  7. Novotná, Z., "Contributions to the Study of Loan-Words and Hybrid Words in Modern Chinese", Archiv Orientalni, (Prague), No. 36 (1968), pp. 295–325. (In English; examples of loan words and calques in Chinese)
  8. Novotná, Z., "Contributions to the Study of Loan-Words and Hybrid Words in Modern Chinese", Archiv Orientalni, (Prague), No. 37 (1969), pp. 48–75. (In English; examples of loan words and calques in Chinese)
  9. Adam's apple. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  10. Website of the Governor General of Canada.
  11. free verse. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  12. old guard. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  13. flea market. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  14. Lynch, Guide to Grammar and Style – N
  15. new wave. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  16. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
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  18. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  19. Tom A. Shippey, The Road to Middle Earth, Grafton, 1992 page 66 (1st Edition George Allen & Unwin 1982)
  20. masterpiece. Dictionary.com. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Retrieved 17 November 2008.
  21. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  22. "cookie". Wiktionary.
  23. antibody. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  24. English in Europe by Manfred Görlach
  25. beer garden. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  26. concertmaster – Definitions from Dictionary.com
  27. Paul McFedries, Wordspy
  28. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  29. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  30. heldentenor – Definitions from Dictionary.com
  31. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  32. loanword – Definitions from Dictionary.com
  33. superman. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  34. German Loan Words in English M-Z
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  37. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  38. storm trooper. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  39. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
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  41. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  42. worldview. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  43. The Mavens' Word of the Day. January 28, 1997.
  44. commonplace. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  45. devil's advocate. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  46. wisdom tooth. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  47. Milky Way. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  48. RIP. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  49. in a nutshell – Definitions from Dictionary.com
  50. Pliny VII.21
  51. blue blood. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  52. moment of truth. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  53. gospel. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  54. Webster's Third New International Dictionary
  55. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  56. Cruijff de film
  57. Søk i elektroniske ordbøker
  58. Søk i elektroniske ordbøker
  59. Søk i elektroniske ordbøker
  60. Ordnett.no – Ordbok
  61. Søk i elektroniske ordbøker
  62. Ordnett.no – Ordbok
  63. Ordnett.no – Ordbok
  64. Søk i elektroniske ordbøker
  65. Søk i elektroniske ordbøker
  66. See p. 62 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2009), Hybridity versus Revivability: Multiple Causation, Forms and Patterns. In Journal of Language Contact, Varia 2 (2009), pp. 40–67.
  67. See p. 48 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad, Hybridity versus Revivability: Multiple Causation, Forms and Patterns. In Journal of Language Contact, Varia 2 (2009), pp. 40–67.