List of unsuccessful major party candidates for Vice President of the United States

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The United States has had a two-party system for much of its history, and the two major parties have nominated vice presidential candidates in most presidential elections.[1] Since the ratification of the United States Constitution in 1789, there have been 59 unsuccessful major party candidates for Vice President of the United States. Eight other individuals have served as the main running mate to a third party or independent presidential candidate who won at least ten percent of the popular or electoral vote.

Prior to the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, each member of the Electoral College cast two votes for president; whichever individual who won the most electoral votes would become president, while the individual with the second-most electoral votes would become vice president. In the elections of 1792, 1796, and 1800, at least one of the major parties ran a candidate whom they intended to elect vice president. The Twelfth Amendment changed the presidential election process, requiring members of the Electoral College to cast separate votes for president and vice president. Since then, the two major parties have almost always nominated a ticket consisting of a single presidential candidate and a single vice presidential candidate. Before the election of 1832, both major parties used a congressional nominating caucus, or nominations by state legislatures, to determine presidential and vice presidential candidates.[2] Since 1840, each major party has consistently nominated a single ticket at their respective presidential nominating conventions.

The two current major parties are the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. At various points prior to the American Civil War, the Federalist Party, the Democratic-Republican Party, the National Republican Party, and the Whig Party were major parties.[1] In the 1872 presidential election, the Liberal Republican Party put forward an unsuccessful major party vice presidential nominee, Benjamin Gratz Brown. Brown and his running mate, Horace Greeley, were also nominated by the Democratic Party.[3]

List of unsuccessful major party candidates

These unsuccessful vice presidential candidates served as the main running mate of a major party presidential candidate who competed in multiple states, or they were a major party's main vice presidential candidate in multiple states.

  • * indicates that the candidate served as Vice President of the United States at some point in their career
      Federalist           Democratic-Republican           National Republican           Whig           Liberal Republican           Democratic           Republican
Election Candidate[4][5] Running mate
Candidate
(Birth–death)		 Party Office at time
of election[lower-alpha 1]		 Home
state[lower-alpha 2]		 EV%[lower-alpha 3]
1792[lower-alpha 4] George Clinton*
(1739–1812)[7]		 100px Democratic-Republican   Governor NY 37% None[lower-alpha 4]
1796[lower-alpha 5] Thomas Pinckney
(1750–1828)[9]		 100px Federalist   Fmr. Ambassador SC 43.7% John Adams
Aaron Burr*
(1756–1836)[10]		 100px Democratic-Republican   Senator NY 22.2% Thomas Jefferson
1800[lower-alpha 6] Charles C. Pinckney
(1746–1825)[12]		 100px Federalist   Fmr. Ambassador SC 36.4% John Adams
1804 Rufus King
(1755–1827)[13]		 100px Federalist   Fmr. Ambassador NY 8% Charles C. Pinckney
1808 26.7%
1812 Jared Ingersoll
(1749–1822)[14]		 100px Federalist   State attorney general[lower-alpha 7] PA 39.4% DeWitt Clinton
1816[lower-alpha 8] John E. Howard
(1752–1827)[16]		 100px Federalist   Fmr. Senator MD 10% Rufus King
1824[lower-alpha 9] Nathan Sanford
(1777–1838)[17]		 100px Democratic-Republican   State judge[lower-alpha 10] NY 11.5% Henry Clay
Nathaniel Macon
(1757–1837)[18]		 100px Senator GA 9.2% William H. Crawford
1828 Richard Rush
(1780–1859)[19]		 100px National Republican   Secretary of the Treasury PA 31.8% John Quincy Adams
1832 John Sergeant
1779–1852[20]		 100px National Republican   Fmr. Representative PA 17.1% Henry Clay
1836[lower-alpha 11] Francis Granger
(1792–1868)[23]		 100px Whig   Representative NY 26.2% William Henry Harrison
John Tyler*
(1790–1862)[24]		 100px Fmr. Senator VA 16% Hugh Lawson White
1840[lower-alpha 12] Richard M. Johnson*
(1780–1850)[27]		 100px Democratic   Vice President KY 16.3% Martin Van Buren
1844 Theodore Frelinghuysen
(1787–1862)[28]		 100px Whig   Fmr. Senator NJ 38.2% Henry Clay
1848 William O. Butler
(1791–1880)[29]		 100px Democratic   Fmr. Representative[lower-alpha 13] KY 43.8% Lewis Cass
1852 William A. Graham
(1804–1875)[30]		 100px Whig   Secretary of the Navy NC 14.2% Winfield Scott
1856[lower-alpha 14] William L. Dayton
(1807–1864)[36]		 100px Republican   Fmr. Senator NJ 38.5% John C. Frémont
1860[lower-alpha 15] Herschel V. Johnson
(1812–1880)[42]		 100px Democratic   Fmr. Governor GA 4% Stephen A. Douglas
1864 George H. Pendleton
(1825–1889)[43]		 100px Democratic   Representative OH 9% George B. McClellan
1868 Francis P. Blair Jr.
(1821–1875)[44]		 100px Democratic   Fmr. Representative MO 25.2% Horatio Seymour
1872 Benjamin G. Brown
(1826–1885)[45]		 100px Liberal Republican
and Democratic[lower-alpha 16]		   Governor MO 13.4% Horace Greeley
1876 Thomas A. Hendricks*
(1819–1885)[47]		 100px Democratic   Governor IN 49.9% Samuel Tilden
1880 William H. English
(1822–1896)[48]		 100px Democratic   Fmr. Representative IN 42% Winfield Scott Hancock
1884 John A. Logan
(1826–1886)[49]		 John Alexander Logan crop.jpg Republican   Senator IL 45.4% James G. Blaine
1888 Allen G. Thurman
(1813–1895)[50]		 100px Democratic   Fmr. Senator OH 41.9% Grover Cleveland
1892 Whitelaw Reid
(1837–1912)[51]		 100px Republican   Fmr. Ambassador NY 32.7% Benjamin Harrison
1896[lower-alpha 17] Arthur Sewall
(1835–1900)		 100px Democratic   None ME 33.3% William Jennings Bryan
1900 Adlai Stevenson I*
(1835–1914)[53]		 100px Democratic   Fmr. Vice President IL 34.7% William Jennings Bryan
1904 Henry G. Davis
(1823–1916)[54]		 100px Democratic   Fmr. Senator WV 29.4% Alton B. Parker
1908 John W. Kern
(1849–1917)[55]		 100px Democratic   Fmr. state senator[lower-alpha 18] IN 33.5% William Jennings Bryan
1912[lower-alpha 19] James S. Sherman*
(1855–1912)[57]		 James Schoolcraft Sherman.jpg Republican   Vice President NY 1.5% William Howard Taft
1916 Charles W. Fairbanks*
(1852–1918)[58]		 100px Republican   Fmr. Vice President IN 47.8% Charles Evans Hughes
1920 Franklin D. Roosevelt
(1882–1945)		 100px Democratic   Fmr. Assistant
Secretary of the Navy		 NY 23.9% James M. Cox
1924 Charles W. Bryan
(1867–1945)[59]		 CharlesBryan.png Democratic   Governor NE 25.6% John W. Davis
1928 Joseph T. Robinson
(1872–1937)[60]		 100px Democratic   Senator AR 16.4% Al Smith
1932 Charles Curtis*
(1860–1936)[61]		 100px Republican   Vice President KS 11.1% Herbert Hoover
1936 Frank Knox
(1874–1944)		 100px Republican   None[lower-alpha 20] IL 1.5% Alf Landon
1940 Charles L. McNary
(1874–1944)[62]		 100px Republican   Senator OR 15.4% Wendell Willkie
1944 John W. Bricker
(1893–1986)[63]		 100px Republican   Governor OH 18.6% Thomas E. Dewey
1948 Earl Warren
(1891–1974)		 100px Republican   Governor CA 35.6% Thomas E. Dewey
1952 John Sparkman
(1899–1985)[64]		 100px Democratic   Senator AL 16.8% Adlai Stevenson II
1956 Estes Kefauver
(1903–1963)[65]		 100px Democratic   Senator TN 13.7% Adlai Stevenson II
1960 Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.
(1902–1985)[66]		 100px Republican   Fmr. Ambassador MA 40.8% Richard Nixon
1964 William E. Miller
(1914–1983)[67]		 100px Republican   Representative[lower-alpha 21] NY 9.7% Barry Goldwater
1968 Edmund Muskie
(1914–1996)[68]		 100px Democratic   Senator ME 35.5% Hubert Humphrey
1972[lower-alpha 22] Sargent Shriver
(1915–2011)		 100px Democratic   Fmr. Ambassador MD 3.2% George McGovern
1976 Bob Dole
(1923–2021)[70]		 100px Republican   Senator KS 44.8% Gerald Ford
1980 Walter Mondale*
(1928–2021)[71]		 100px Democratic   Vice President MN 9.1% Jimmy Carter
1984 Geraldine Ferraro
(1935–2011)[72]		 100px Democratic   Representative NY 2.4% Walter Mondale
1988 Lloyd Bentsen
(1921–2006)[73]		 100px Democratic   Senator TX 20.6% Michael Dukakis
1992 Dan Quayle*
(born 1947)[74]		 100px Republican   Vice President IN 31.2% George H. W. Bush
1996 Jack Kemp
(1935–2009)[75]		 100px Republican   Fmr. Secretary of HUD NY 29.6% Bob Dole
2000 Joe Lieberman
(born 1942)[76]		 100px Democratic   Senator CT 49.4% Al Gore
2004 John Edwards
(born 1953)[77]		 John Edwards, official Senate photo portrait.jpg Democratic   Senator NC 46.8% John Kerry
2008 Sarah Palin
(born 1964)		 100px Republican   Governor AK 32.2% John McCain
2012 Paul Ryan
(born 1970)[78]		 100px Republican   Representative WI 38.3% Mitt Romney
2016 Tim Kaine
(born 1958)[79]		 100px Democratic   Senator VA 42.2% Hillary Clinton
2020 Mike Pence*
(born 1959)[80]		 100px Republican   Vice President IN 43.1% Donald Trump

List of unsuccessful major third party and independent candidates

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Further information: List of United States major third party and independent presidential tickets

These third party and independent candidates won at least ten percent of the electoral vote for vice president, or served as the main running mate to a third party or independent presidential candidate who won at least ten percent of the popular vote for president.[81]

      Free Soil           American           Southern Democratic           Constitutional Union
           Progressive (1912)           Progressive (1924)           American Independent           Independent
Election Candidate[4][5] Running mate
Candidate
(Birth–death)		 Party Office at time
of election[lower-alpha 1]		 Home
state[lower-alpha 2]		 EV%[lower-alpha 23]
1848 Charles Francis Adams Sr.
(1807–1886)[82]		 100px Free Soil   Fmr. state senator MA 0% Martin Van Buren
1856[lower-alpha 14] Andrew Jackson Donelson
(1800–1874)[83]		 100px American   Fmr. Ambassador TN 2.7% Millard Fillmore
1860[lower-alpha 15] Joseph Lane
(1801–1881)[84]		 100px Southern Democratic   Senator OR 23.8% John C. Breckinridge
1860 Edward Everett
(1794–1865)[85]		 100px Constitutional Union   Fmr. Secretary of State MA 12.9% John Bell
1912 Hiram Johnson
(1866–1945)[86]		 100px Progressive   Governor CA 16.6% Theodore Roosevelt
1924 Burton K. Wheeler
(1882–1975)[87]		 BurtonKWheeler.jpg Progressive   Senator MT 2.4% Robert La Follette
1968 Curtis LeMay
(1906–1990)[88]		 100px American Independent   General CA 8.6% George Wallace
1992 James Stockdale
(1923–2005)[89][90]		 100px Independent   Vice Admiral CA 0% Ross Perot

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 The most recent elective office, or senior appointive position, held by the candidate either on election day or in November of the election year.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 State of primary residence at the time of the election.
  3. ↑ For elections held prior to 1804, this column represents the share of electors who cast a vote for the candidate. For elections held since 1804, this column represents the share of the total electoral vote for vice president won by the candidate.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 In the 1792 election, George Washington effectively ran unopposed for president, but the emerging Democratic-Republican Party attempted to defeat Vice President John Adams's bid for re-election.[6] Adams won re-election with 77 electoral votes, while Clinton won 50 electoral votes Thomas Jefferson, won four electoral votes, and Aaron Burr won one electoral vote.
  5. ↑ The Democratic-Republicans may or may not have officially nominated Thomas Jefferson for president through a congressional nominating caucus, but Jefferson was widely regarded as the party's main presidential candidate in the 1796 election. The Democratic-Republicans did not select an official vice presidential candidate. Aaron Burr finished with the second-most electoral votes among individuals affiliated with the party, while Samuel Adams and George Clinton each received several electoral votes. Federalist leaders agreed to support a ticket of John Adams and Thomas Pinckney, though it is unclear whether they formally nominated the ticket at a congressional nominating caucus.[8] Ultimately, Adams won the most electoral votes and became president. Because Jefferson won more electoral votes than Pinckney or Burr, he was elected as vice president.[4]
  6. ↑ Both parties held congressional nominating caucuses to nominate presidential candidates in 1800. The Democratic-Republicans nominated Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, while the Federalists nominated John Adams and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney. Some Federalist leaders, including Alexander Hamilton, favored Pinckney over Adams, but Adams won one more electoral vote than Pinckney.[11] Jefferson and Burr each won the votes of 73 presidential electors, more than either of the Federalist candidates. Because Jefferson and Burr tied in the electoral vote, the election was decided by a contingent election held in the House of Representatives; Jefferson was elected president and Burr became vice president.[4]
  7. ↑ Ingersoll had also served as a delegate to the Continental Congress and to the Constitutional Convention.[14]
  8. ↑ The Federalists did not nominate a ticket in 1816, though some Federalists were elected to serve as presidential electors. A majority of the Federalist electors cast their presidential vote for Rufus King and their vice presidential vote for Howard.[15]
  9. ↑ In the election 1824, no presidential candidate won a majority of the electoral vote for president, but John C. Calhoun won a majority of the electoral vote for vice president. Most presidential electors who voted for either John Quincy Adams or Andrew Jackson for president voted for Calhoun for vice president. Similarly, most electors who cast their presidential vote for Henry Clay cast their vice presidential vote for Nathaniel Macon, and most electors who cast their presidential vote for William H. Crawford cast their vice presidential vote for Sanford.[4]
  10. ↑ Sanford was the Chancellor of New York, the highest-ranking judge in the state. He had also served in the United States Senate.[17]
  11. ↑ The Whigs did not select an official presidential or vice presidential nominee in 1836. In most Northern states, the Whigs fielded a ticket of William Henry Harrison and Francis Granger, and in most Southern states, the Whigs fielded a ticket of Hugh Lawson White and John Tyler.[21] Granger, Tyler, and two Democrats, Richard Mentor Johnson and William Smith, each won a share of the electoral vote.[4] Because no one candidate won a majority of the electoral vote for vice president, the Senate held a contingent election to select the vice president. In the only contingent election that the Senate has ever held, Johnson defeated Granger.[22]
  12. ↑ The 1840 Democratic National Convention denied renomination to Vice President Richard Mentor Johnson, and the Democrats failed to officially nominate a vice presidential candidate in 1840.[25] Nonetheless, 48 of the 60 presidential electors who cast their presidential vote for Van Buren cast their vice presidential vote for Johnson. Most of the remaining Van Buren electors cast their vice presidential vote for Littleton Waller Tazewell.[26]
  13. ↑ Butler had also served as a major general of volunteers in the Mexican–American War.[29]
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 After the collapse of the Whig Party in the mid-1850s, the Republican Party and the American Party (the political organization of the Know Nothing movement) emerged as the major challengers to the Democratic Party. By 1856, neither the Republican nor the American Party had truly supplanted the Whig Party as the second major political party in the United States.[31] Nonetheless, the American Party is frequently described as a third party.[32][33][34] After the 1856 election, the Republican Party firmly established itself as one of the two major parties alongside the Democratic Party, while the American Party collapsed.[35]
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 The Democratic Party fractured along sectional lines in 1860 and held multiple national conventions. The Northern Democrats nominated Douglas and the Southern Democrats nominated Vice President John C. Breckinridge.[37][38] Many sources include Breckinridge as a third party candidate,[39][4][40] but other sources do not.[41][5]
  16. ↑ Horace Greeley and Benjamin Gratz Brown were nominated by the Liberal Republican Party, a splinter group of Republicans. The ticket of Greeley and Brown was later nominated by the 1872 Democratic National Convention, as the Democrats hoped to defeat President Ulysses S. Grant's re-election bid by uniting with the Liberal Republicans.[3][46]
  17. ↑ In 1896, after William Jennings Bryan won the Democratic presidential nomination, he was also nominated by the Populist Party, a major third party. The Populist vice presidential nominee was Thomas E. Watson.[52] Bryan's running mate on the Democratic ticket, Arthur Sewall, won 149 electoral votes for vice president, while Watson won 27 electoral votes for vice president.[4]
  18. ↑ Kern was the Democratic nominee for Governor of Indiana in the 1900 and 1904 elections.[55]
  19. ↑ Sherman died on October 30, 1912, and Taft did not name another running mate before the 1912 election was held. After the election, the Republican National Committee designated Nicholas Murray Butler as Taft's running mate for the purposes of the electoral vote, and Butler received eight electoral votes.[56]
  20. ↑ Knox was primarily known as the editor of the Chicago Daily News.
  21. ↑ Miller also served as Chairman of the Republican National Committee from 1961 to 1964.[67]
  22. ↑ The 1972 Democratic National Convention selected Thomas Eagleton as the party's vice presidential nominee, but Eagleton dropped out of the race after it was publicly disclosed that he had undergone electroconvulsive therapy in order to treat depression. Shriver replaced Eagleton on the Democratic ticket.[69]
  23. ↑ For elections held prior to 1804, this column represents the share of electors who cast a vote for the candidate. For elections held since 1804, this column represents the share of the total electoral vote for vice president won by the candidate.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  2. ↑ Morgan (1969), p. 195
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Hale (1950), p. 338
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  6. ↑ Thompson (1980), pp. 174–175
  7. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  8. ↑ Morgan (1969), pp. 185–186
  9. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  10. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  11. ↑ Morgan (1969), pp. 186–187
  12. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  13. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  15. ↑ Deskins et al. (2010), pp. 65
  16. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  18. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  19. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  20. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  21. ↑ Peterson (1989), pp. 19–20
  22. ↑ Deskins et al. (2010), pp. 108–109
  23. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  24. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  25. ↑ Sirgiovanni (1994), pp. 767–768
  26. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  27. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  28. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  30. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  31. ↑ McPherson (1988), pp. 140–144, 153–154
  32. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  33. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  34. ↑ Hicks (1933), p. 10
  35. ↑ Gienapp (1985), p. 547
  36. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  37. ↑ Smith (1975), pp. 106–113
  38. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  39. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  40. ↑ Rosenstone et al. (2018), pp. 59–63
  41. ↑ Hicks (1933), pp. 3–28
  42. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  43. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  44. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  45. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  46. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  47. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  48. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  49. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  50. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  51. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  52. ↑ Kazin (2006), pp. 63–65
  53. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  54. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  56. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  57. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  58. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  59. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  60. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  61. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  62. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  63. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  64. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  65. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  66. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  68. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  69. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  70. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  71. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  72. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  73. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  74. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  75. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  76. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  77. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  78. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  79. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  80. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  81. ↑ Rosenstone et al. (2018), Appendix A
  82. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  83. ↑ Southwick (1998), p. 251
  84. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  85. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  86. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  87. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  88. ↑ Southwick (1998), pp. 697–698
  89. ↑ Southwick (1998), pp. 768–769
  90. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.

Works cited

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