Orders of magnitude (temperature)
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File:Temperature in eV.svg
Temperature in °C compared to the thermodynamic scale in electron volts, which are also used as a unit of temperature.
Contents
List of orders of magnitude for temperature
| Factor | Multiple | Item |
|---|---|---|
| 0 | 0 K | absolute zero: free bodies are still, no interaction within or without a thermodynamic system |
| 10−30 | 10−6 yK | particular speeds bound paths to exceed size and lifetime of the universe (see least-energy in orders of magnitude (energy)) |
| 10−18 | 1 aK | macroscopic teleportation of matter Hawking temperature of Supermassive black holes |
| 10−15 | 1 fK | atomic waves coherent over centimeters atomic particles decoherent over centimeters |
| 10−12 | 1 pK | 100 pK, lowest temperature ever produced, during the nuclear magnetic ordering at Helsinki University of Technology's Low Temperature Lab[1] 450 pK, lowest temperature sodium Bose–Einstein condensate gas ever achieved in the laboratory, at MIT[2] |
| 10−9 | 1 nK | 50 nK, Fermi temperature of potassium-40 critical temperature of alkali Bose–Einstein condensates |
| 10−6 | 1 μK | nuclear demagnetization Doppler-cooled refrigerants in laser cooling and magneto-optical traps |
| 10−3 | 1 mK | radio excitations 1.7 mK, temperature record for helium-3/helium-4 dilution refrigeration, and the lowest temperature which may be sustained for arbitrarily long time with known techniques. 2.5 mK, Fermi melting point of helium-3 60 mK adiabatic demagnetization of paramagnetic molecules 300 mK in evaporative cooling of helium-3 700 mK, helium-3/helium-4 mixtures begin phase separation 950 mK, melting point of helium microwave excitations |
| 1 | 1 K | 1 K at the Boomerang Nebula, the coldest natural environment known 1.5 K, melting point of overbound helium 2.19 K, lambda point of overbound superfluid helium 2.725 K, cosmic microwave background 4.1 K, superconductivity point of mercury 4.22 K, boiling point of bound helium 5.19 K, critical temperature of helium 7.2 K, superconductivity point of lead 9.3 K, superconductivity point of niobium |
| 101 | 10 K | Fermi melting point of valence electrons for superconductivity 14.01 K, melting point of bound hydrogen 20.28 K, boiling point of bound hydrogen 33 K, critical temperature of hydrogen 44 K mean on Pluto 53 K mean of Neptune 63 K, melting point of bound nitrogen 68 K mean of Uranus 77.35 K, boiling point of bound nitrogen 90.19 K, boiling point of bound oxygen 92 K, superconductivity point of Y–Ba–Cu–oxide (YBCO) |
| 102 | 100 K | infrared excitations 134 K, highest-temperature superconductor at ambient pressure, mercury barium calcium copper oxide 165 K, glass point of supercooled water 184.0 K (–89.2 °C), coldest air recorded on Earth 192 K, Debye temperature of ice 273.15 K (0 °C), melting point of bound water 273.16 K (0.01 °C), temperature of triple point of water (defining constant) ~293 K, room temperature 373.15 K (100 °C), boiling point of bound water at sea level 647 K, critical point of superheated water 737.5 K, mean on Venus See detailed list below |
| 103 | 1 kK | visible light excitations 500–2200 K on brown dwarfs (photosphere) 1170 K at wood fire 1300 K in lava flows, open flames 1500 K in basalt lava flows ~1670 K at blue candle flame 1811 K, melting point of iron (lower for steel) 1830 K in Bunsen burner flame 1900 K at the Space Shuttle orbiter hull in 8 km/s dive 2022 K, boiling point of lead 2230 K, Debye temperature of carbon 2320 K at open hydrogen flame 2150–2450 K at open hydrocarbon flame 2900 K, color temperature of halogen lamps, blackbody radiation maximum at 1000 nm 3683 K, melting point of tungsten 3925 K, sublimation point of carbon 4160 K, melting point of hafnium carbide 4800 K, 10 MPa, triple point of carbon[3] 5000 K, 12 GPa melting point of diamond[4] 5100 K in cyanogen-dioxygen flame 5516 K at dicyanoacetylene (carbon subnitride)-ozone flame 5650 K at Earth's Inner Core Boundary 5780 K on surface of the Sun 5933 K, boiling point of tungsten 6000 K, mean of the Universe 300,000 years after the Big Bang 7445 K, 850 GPa;[5] 8750 K, 520 GPa;[6] 5400 K, 220 GPa,[7] critical point of diamond/solid III 7735 K, a monatomic ideal gas has one electron volt of kinetic energy ultraviolet excitations 8000 K, routinely sustainable temperature in an analytical inductively coupled plasma 8801 K, 10.56 GPa[8] 7020.5 K, 797 MPa,[9] critical point of carbon anionic sparks |
| 104 | 10 kK | 10 kK on Sirius A 10–15 kK in mononitrogen recombination 15.5 kK, critical point of tungsten 25 kK, mean of the Universe 10,000 years after the Big Bang 26 kK on white dwarf Sirius B 28 kK in record cationic lightning over Earth 4–8–40–160 kK on white dwarfs 30–400 kK on a planetary nebula's asymptotic giant helium star 37 kK in proton–electron reactions 38 kK on Eta Carinae 50 kK at protostar (core) 53 kK on Wolf–Rayet star R136a1 54.5 kK on ON2 III(f*) star LH64-16[10] >200 kK on Butterfly Nebula ~300 kK at 17 meters from Little Boy's detonation Fermi boiling point of valence electrons X-ray excitations |
| 106 | 1 MK | 0.8 MK in solar wind γ-ray excitations 1 MK inside old neutron stars, brown dwarfs, and at gravital deuterium fusion range 1–3–10 MK above Sun (corona) 2.4 MK at T Tauri stars and gravital lithium-6 fusion range 2.5 MK at red dwarfs and gravital protium fusion range 10 MK at orange dwarfs and gravital helium-3 fusion range 15.6 MK at Sun's core 10–30–100 MK in stellar flares 20 MK in novæ 23 MK, beryllium-7 fusion range 60 MK above Eta Carinae 85 MK (15 keV) in a magnetic confinement fusion plasma 200 MK at helium star and gravital helium-4 fusion range 230 MK, gravital carbon-12 fusion range 460 MK, gravital neon fusion–disproportionation range 5–530 MK in Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor's plasma 750 MK, gravital oxygen fusion range |
| 109 | 1 GK | 1 GK, everything 100 seconds after the Big Bang 1.3–1.7 GK, gravital silicon fusion range 3 GK in electron–positron reactions 10 GK in supernovae 10 GK, everything 1 second after the Big Bang 700 GK in quasars' accretion discs 740 GK, Hagedorn temperature or Fermi melting point of pions |
| 1012 | 1 TK | 0.1–1 TK at new neutron star 0.5–1.2 TK, Fermi melting point of hadrons into quark–gluon plasma 3–5 TK in proton–antiproton reactions Z0 electronuclear excitations 5.5 TK, highest man-made temperature as of 2015 (quark–gluon plasma from ALICE)[11] 10 TK, 100 microseconds after the Big Bang 45–67 TK at collapsar of a gamma-ray burst 300–900 TK at proton–nickel conversions in the Tevatron's Main Injector[clarification needed] |
| 1015 | 1 PK | 0.3–2.2 PK at proton–antiproton collisions
2.8 PK at electroweak star |
| 1018 | 1 EK | 2–13 EK at heavy nuclear conversions in the Large Hadron Collider |
| 1021 | 1 ZK | dark matter at active galactic nuclei |
| 1024 | 1 YK | 0.5–7 YK at ultra-high-energy cosmic ray collisions |
| 1027 | 103 YK | electrocoloral excitations everything 10−35 seconds after the Big Bang |
| 1030 | 106 YK | Hagedorn temperature of strings |
| 1032 | 108 YK | 142 million YK, Planck temperature of Planck particles and geons or kugelblitzes everything 5×10−44 seconds after the Big Bang |
| 1033 | 109 YK | theory of everything excitations[citation needed] extradimensional gauge freedom[citation needed] Landau poles[citation needed] |
| ∞ | ∞ K | Initial singularity |
Detailed list for 100 K to 1000 K
Most ordinary human activity takes place at temperatures of this order of magnitude. Circumstances where water naturally occurs in liquid form are shown in light grey.
| Kelvin | Degrees Celsius |
Degrees Fahrenheit |
Condition |
|---|---|---|---|
| 100 K | −173.15 °C | −279.67 °F | |
| 125 K | −148 °C | −234 °F | superconductivity point of Tl–Ba–Cu–oxide |
| 138 K | −135 °C | −211 °F | superconductivity point of Hg–Tl–Ba–Ca–Cu–oxide |
| 140 K | −130 °C | −200 °F | mean on Saturn |
| 150 K | −120 °C | −190 °F | mean on Jupiter |
| 179.9 K | −93.2 °C | −135.8 °F | coldest luminance temperature recorded on Earth (measured remotely by satellite), in Antarctica at 81.8° S, 59.3° E on 2010-08-10[12] |
| 182 K | −91 °C | −132 °F | unconfirmed air temperature at Stántsiya Vostók, Antarctica in 1997[13][14] |
| 183.7 K | −89.5 °C | −129.1 °F | freezing/melting point of isopropyl alcohol[15] |
| 183.9 K | −89.2 °C | −128.6 °F | coldest officially recorded air temperature on Earth, at Stántsiya Vostók, Antarctica on 1983-07-21 01:45 UTC (see Vostok Station) |
| 194.6 K | −78.5 °C | −109.3 °F | sublimation point of carbon dioxide (dry ice) |
| 202 K | −71 °C | −96 °F | unofficial air temperature in the Rocky Mountains near Fort Nelson, British Columbia, Canada on the night of January 6–7, 1982[14] |
| 203.8 K | −69.4 °C | −92.9 °F | unofficial air temperature in Greenland on 1991-12-22 at 72°18' N, 40°28' W[14] |
| 205.5 K | −67.7 °C | −89.9 °F | coldest officially recorded air temperature in the Northern Hemisphere, at Oymyakon, Siberia, Soviet Union on 1933-02-06[14] |
| 210 K | −63 °C | −81 °F | coldest officially recorded air temperature in North America, at Snag, Yukon, Canada on 1947-02-03[14][16] |
| 210 K | −63 °C | −80 °F | mean on Mars |
| 214.9 K | –58.3 °C | –72.9 °F | coldest annual mean temperature on Earth, at Dome Argus, Antarctica[17] |
| 223 K | -50 °C | -58 °F | mean on Earth during Snowball Earth[18] around 650 million years ago |
| 224.8 K | −48.4 °C | −55.0 °F | coldest temperature that water can remain a liquid (see supercooling) |
| 225 K | −48 °C | −55 °F | freezing/melting point of cottonseed oil[19] |
| 233.15 K | −40 °C | −40 °F | intersecting point of the Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature scales skin may freeze almost instantly at or below this temperature[20] |
| 234.3 K | −38.83 °C | −37.89 °F | freezing/melting point of mercury |
| 240.4 K | −32.8 °C | −27.0 °F | coldest air temperature recorded in South America, at Sarmiento, Argentina on 1907-06-01[16] |
| 249 K | –24 °C | –11 °F | freezing/melting point of flax seed oil[19] |
| 249.3 K | –23.9 °C | –11.0 °F | coldest air temperature recorded in Africa, at Ifrane, Morocco on 1935-02-11[16] |
| 250 K | –23 °C | –9 °F | coldest air temperature recorded in Australia, at Charlotte Pass, New South Wales, Australia on 1994-06-29[16] |
| 255 K | −18 °C | −0.4 °F | recommended for keeping food frozen |
| 255.37 K | –17.78°C | 0 °F | coldest brine-ice solution found by Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit |
| 255 K | –18 °C | 0 °F | freezing/melting point of almond oil[19] |
| 256 K | –17 °C | 1 °F | freezing/melting point of sunflower oil[19] |
| 256 K | –17 °C | 2 °F | freezing/melting point of safflower oil[19] |
| 257 K | –16 °C | 3 °F | freezing/melting point of soybean oil[19] |
| 262 K | −11 °C | 12 °F | freezing/melting point of corn oil[19] |
| 263 K | –10 °C | 14 °F | freezing/melting point of canola oil[19] freezing/melting point of grape seed oil[19] |
| 265 K | –8 °C | 18 °F | white frost can form below this temperature (see frost) freezing/melting point of hemp seed oil[19] |
| 265.8 K | -7.2 °C | 19 °F | freezing/melting point of bromine |
| 267 K | –6 °C | 21 °F | freezing/melting point of olive oil[19] freezing/melting point of sesame oil[19] |
| 272 K | −1.1 °C | 30 °F | chilly sea |
| 273.15 K | 0.00 °C | 32.00 °F | freezing/melting point of water (at STP) |
| 276 K | 3 °C | 37 °F | freezing/melting point of peanut oil[21] |
| 277.13 K | 3.98 °C | 39.16 °F | water is at maximum density[22] |
| 278 K | 5 °C | 41 °F | recommended for keeping food cool |
| 286.9 K | 12.7 °C | 54.9 °F | coldest body temperature of a human that survived accidental hypothermia (a 2-year-old boy in Racławice, Poland, on November 30, 2014)[23][24] |
| 287 K | 14 °C | 57 °F | mean on Earth |
| 288 K | 15 °C | 59 °F | hottest air temperature recorded in Antarctica, at Vanda Station on 1974-05-01[16] |
| 295 K | 21 °C | 70 °F | room temperature |
| 296 K | 23 °C | 73 °F | Mean on Earth during the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum[25] about 55.8 million years ago |
| 297 K | 24 °C | 75 °F | melting/freezing point of palm kernel oil[19] |
| 298 K | 25 °C | 77 °F | melting/freezing point of coconut oil[19] |
| 300 K | 27 °C | 80.6 °F | estimated melting/freezing point of francium |
| 301.2 K | 28 °C | 82.4 °F | minimum temperature for a naked human to be comfortable[26] |
| 303 K | 29 °C | 84 °F | Heated indoor swimming pool for recreational swimming |
| 302.9 K | 29.8 °C | 85.6 °F | melting/freezing point of gallium |
| 303.2 K | 30 °C | 86 °F | maximum temperature for a naked human to be comfortable[26] |
| 304 K | 31 °C | 88 °F | melting/freezing point of butter, critical point for carbon dioxide |
| 307 K | 34 °C | 93 °F | kindling point of white phosphorus |
| 307.6 K | 34.4 °C | 93.9 °F | hottest annual mean temperature on Earth, at Dallol, Ethiopia[17] |
| 308 K | 35 °C | 95 °F | Hypothermic body temperature for humans (see Hypothermia) warmest sea measured, at the Red Sea melting/freezing point of palm oil[19] |
| 310.0 K | 36.8 °C | 98.2 °F | average body temperature for a human[27] (see Human body temperature) |
| 310.87 K | 37.87 °C | 99.9 °F | beginnings of a fever for humans[28] |
| 311.8 K | 38.6 °C | 101.5 °F | average body temperature for a cat[29] |
| 313.15 K | 40 °C | 104 °F | Maximum standard temperature recommended for hot tub users[30] |
| 315 K | 42 °C | 108 °F | usually fatal human fever |
| 319.3 K | 46.1 °C | 115 °F | world's hottest air temperature recorded while raining, at Needles, California, USA on August 13, 2012[31] |
| 319.7 K | 46.5 °C | 115.7 °F | highest human fever survived (Willie Jones)[32] |
| 322.1 K | 48.9 °C | 120.0 °F | hottest air temperature recorded in South America, at Rivadavia, Argentina on 1905-12-11[16] |
| 323.9 K | 50.7 °C | 123.3 °F | hottest air temperature recorded in the Southern Hemisphere, at Oodnadatta, Australia on 1960-02-01[16] |
| 326.7 K | 53.5 °C | 128.3 °F | hottest reliably measured air temperature in Eurasia, at Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan on 2010-05-26[33] |
| 327 K | 54 °C | 129 °F | hottest officially recorded air temperature in Eurasia, at Tirat Tsvi, Israel on 1942-06-21 (this measurement is an error[34]) |
| 327.2 K | 54.0 °C | 129.2 °F | hottest reliably measured air temperature on Earth (according to some meteorologists), at Furnace Creek, Death Valley, California, USA on 2013-06-30[35] |
| 328.2 K | 55.0 °C | 131.0 °F | hottest official air temperature in Africa, at Kebili, Tunisia on 1931-07-07[16] (accuracy of this measurement is disputed)[34] |
| 330 K | 57 °C | 134 °F | hottest official air temperature on Earth, at Furnace Creek, Death Valley, California, USA on 1913-07-10[16] (accuracy of this measurement is disputed)[34][35] |
| 330 K | 60 °C | 140 °F | recommended for keeping food warm |
| 336 K | 63 °C | 145.4 °F | milk pasteurization |
| 343 K | 69 °C | 157 °F | boiling point of water on the summit of Mount Everest[36] |
| 340 K | 70 °C | 160 °F | food is well done hot springs at which some bacteria thrive |
| 350 K | 77 °C | 170 °F | poaching of food |
| 351.52 K | 78.37 °C | 173.07 °F | boiling point of ethanol |
| 354.15 K | 80 °C | 176 °F | Average temperature of a sauna |
| 355 K | 82 °C | 180 °F | recommended for coffee brewing |
| 355.6 K | 82.4 °C | 180.3 °F | boiling point of isopropyl alcohol[15] |
| 366 K | 93 °C | 200 °F | simmering of food |
| 367 K | 94 °C | 201 °F | hottest luminance temperature recorded on Earth at Furnace Creek, Death Valley, California, USA on 1972-07-15[37] |
| 371 K | 98 °C | 209 °F | melting point of sodium |
| 372 K | 99 °C | 210 °F | cake is well done |
| 373.13 K | 99.98 °C | 211.97 °F | boiling point of water at sea level (see Celsius) |
| 380 K | 105 °C | 225 °F | oven on very low smoke point of raw safflower oil syrup is concentrated to 75% sugar |
| 388 K | 115 °C | 239 °F | melting/freezing point of sulfur |
| 400 K | 127 °C | 260 °F | Concorde nose tip during supersonic flight Coldest known stars in space (approximate temperature)[38] |
| 410 K | 140 °C | 275 °F | oven on low |
| 435 K | 160 °C | 320 °F | syrup is concentrated to 100% sugar |
| 440 K | 170 °C | 325 °F | oven on low-medium |
| 450 K | 175 °C | 350 °F | oven on medium mean on Mercury smoke point of butter |
| 453 K | 180 °C | 356 °F | popcorn pops (see popcorn) |
| 470 K | 200 °C | 400 °F | oven on medium-high |
| 485 K | 210 °C | 410 °F | kindling point of diesel fuel |
| 490 K | 220 °C | 425 °F | oven on high kindling range of paper |
| 510 K | 240 °C | 475 °F | oven on very high kindling range of automotive gasoline |
| 515 K | 245 °C | 480 °F | kindling point of jet fuel (Jet A/Jet A-1)[39] |
| 525 K | 250 °C | 485 °F | smoke point of milkfat kindling point of jet fuel (Jet B)[39] |
| 540 K | 265 °C | 510 °F | smoke point of refined safflower oil |
| 574.59 K | 301.44 °C | 574.59 °F | approximate intersecting point of the Fahrenheit and Kelvin temperature scales |
| 600.65 K | 327.5 °C | 621.5 °F | melting/freezing point of lead |
| 723 K | 450 °C | 842 °F | autoignition point for paper[40] kindling point of aviation gasoline[39] |
| 740 K | 460 °C | 870 °F | mean on Venus |
| 749 K | 476 °C | 889 °F | kindling point of magnesium |
| 760 K | 480 °C | 900 °F | electric oven on the self-cleaning cycle |
| 798 K | 525 °C | 977 °F | Draper Point (the point at which nearly all objects start to glow dim red[41]) |
| 809 K | 536 °C | 997 °F | kindling point of hydrogen |
| 933.47 K | 660.32 °C | 1220.58 °F | melting/freezing point of aluminium |
| 1000 K | 726.85 °C | 1340.33 °F |
SI Multiples
| Submultiples | Multiples | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Value | SI symbol | Name | Value | SI symbol | Name | |
| 10−1 K | dK | decikelvin | 101 K | daK | decakelvin | |
| 10−2 K | cK | centikelvin | 102 K | hK | hectokelvin | |
| 10−3 K | mK | millikelvin | 103 K | kK | kilokelvin | |
| 10−6 K | µK | microkelvin | 106 K | MK | megakelvin | |
| 10−9 K | nK | nanokelvin | 109 K | GK | gigakelvin | |
| 10−12 K | pK | picokelvin | 1012 K | TK | terakelvin | |
| 10−15 K | fK | femtokelvin | 1015 K | PK | petakelvin | |
| 10−18 K | aK | attokelvin | 1018 K | EK | exakelvin | |
| 10−21 K | zK | zeptokelvin | 1021 K | ZK | zettakelvin | |
| 10−24 K | yK | yoctokelvin | 1024 K | YK | yottakelvin | |
References
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- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Gerald I. Kerley and Lalit Chhabildas, "Multicomponent-Multiphase Equation of State for Carbon", Sandia National Laboratories (2001)
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-25287806 Coldest spot on Earth identified by satellite
- ↑ http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2000/YongLiLiang.shtml The Physics Handbook – Coldest Temperature on Earth
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 http://www.wunderground.com/blog/weatherhistorian/the-coldest-places-on-earth Weather Underground – Coldest Places on Earth
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=690&page=56 The National Academies Press – Emergency and Continuous Exposure Limits for Selected Airborne Contaminants Volume 2 ( 1984 )
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 http://wmo.asu.edu/ ASU World Meteorological Organization – Global Weather & Climate Extremes
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 http://www.currentresults.com/Weather-Extremes/ Current Results – Worlds Hottest and Coldest Places
- ↑ http://www.space.com/9461-snowball-earth-scenario-plunged-planet-million-year-winters.html 'Snowball Earth' Scenario Plunged Our Planet Into Million-Year Winters
- ↑ 19.00 19.01 19.02 19.03 19.04 19.05 19.06 19.07 19.08 19.09 19.10 19.11 19.12 19.13 19.14 Veganbaking.net – Fat and Oil Melt Point Temperatures http://www.veganbaking.net/tools/fat-and-oil-melt-point-temperatures
- ↑ http://www.weathernotebook.org/transcripts/2001/02/07.html The Weather Notebook – 40 Below
- ↑ http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/chem03/chem03265.htm U.S. Dept. of Energy – Office of Science – Oils and Low Temperature
- ↑ http://www.esf.edu/efb/schulz/Limnology/mixing.html College of Environmental Science and Forestry – Thermal Stratification
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ https://www.climate.gov/news-features/climate-qa/whats-hottest-earths-ever-been What's the hottest Earth's ever been?
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/comfort+zone Dictionary.com – Comfort Zone
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ http://people.rit.edu/hmm5837/320/project2/page4.html Rochester Institute for Technology – Random Cat Facts
- ↑ http://www.jacuzzi.com/hot-tubs/hot-tub-blog/ideal-hot-tub-water-temperature/. Finding The Ideal Hot Tub Temperature. Jacuzzi
- ↑ http://www.wunderground.com/blog/JeffMasters/hottest-rain-on-record-rain-falls-at-115f-in-needles-california Wunderground.com – Dr. Jeff Masters' Wunderblog – Hottest rain on record? Rain falls at 115°F in Needles, California
- ↑ http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/clock.html Biological Rhythums
- ↑ http://www.wunderground.com/blog/JeffMasters/asia-records-its-hottest-temperature-in-history-category-4--phet-thre Dr. Jeff Masters' WunderBlog – Asia records its hottest temperature in history; Category 4 Phet threatens Oman
- ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 http://www.wunderground.com/blog/weatherhistorian/hottest-air-temperatures-reported-on-earth Wunderground.com – Weather Extremes: Hottest air temperatures reported on Earth
- ↑ 35.0 35.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ http://science.howstuffworks.com/dictionary/chemistry-terms/boiling-info.htm HowStuffWorks – Boiling
- ↑ http://www.nps.gov/deva/naturescience/weather-and-climate.htm National Park Service – Death Valley – Weather and Climate
- ↑ http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/research/Stars.shtml University of Hawaii – Institute for Astronomy
- ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 INTERNATIONAL FIRE TRAINING CENTRE: FIREFIGHTER INITIAL: AVIATION FUELS AND FUEL TANKS - International Fire Training Centre
- ↑ http://books.google.com/books?id=qa-I8QAOUL8C&pg=PA406&lpg=PA406&dq=flash+point+of+paper&source=web&ots=FjB5FslcKK&sig=Vlr2cc8M2-TWy3qkdwzGUeK-vnM&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=10&ct=result#v=onepage&q=flash%20point%20of%20paper&f=false Handbook of Physical Testing of Paper
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
