Fermat pseudoprime

In number theory, the Fermat pseudoprimes make up the most important class of pseudoprimes that come from Fermat's little theorem.

Definition

Fermat's little theorem states that if p is prime and a is coprime to p, then a^p−1 − 1 is divisible by p. For an integer a > 1, if a composite integer x divides a^x−1 − 1, then x is called a Fermat pseudoprime to base a. In other words, a composite integer is a Fermat pseudoprime to base a if it successfully passes the Fermat primality test for the base a. It follows that if x is a Fermat pseudoprime to base a, then x is coprime to a.

The smallest base-2 Fermat pseudoprime is 341. It is not a prime, since it equals 11·31, but it satisfies Fermat's little theorem: 2³⁴⁰ ≡ 1 (mod 341) and thus passes the Fermat primality test for the base 2.

Pseudoprimes to base 2 are sometimes called Poulet numbers, after the Belgian mathematician Paul Poulet, Sarrus numbers, or Fermatians (sequence A001567 in OEIS).

A Fermat pseudoprime is often called a pseudoprime, with the modifier Fermat being understood.

An integer x that is a Fermat pseudoprime for all values of a that are coprime to x is called a Carmichael number.

Variations

Some sources use variations of the definition, for example to only allow odd numbers to be pseudoprimes.

Every odd number q satisfies $a^{q-1} \equiv 1 \pmod q$ for $a=q-1$. This trivial case is excluded in the definition of a Fermat pseudoprime given by Crandall and Pomerance:

A composite number q is a Fermat pseudoprime to a base a, if $a^{q-1} \equiv 1 \pmod q$ and $2 \le a \le q-2.$

Properties

Distribution

There are infinitely many pseudoprimes to a given base (in fact, infinitely many strong pseudoprimes (see Theorem 1 of ) and infinitely many Carmichael numbers ) , but they are rather rare. There are only three pseudoprimes to base 2 below 1000, 245 below one million, and only 21853 less than 25·10⁹ (see Table 1 of ).

Starting at 17·257, the product of consecutive Fermat numbers is a base-2 pseudoprime, and so are all Fermat composite and Mersenne composite.

Factorizations

The factorizations of the 60 Poulet numbers up to 60787, including 13 Carmichael numbers (in bold), are in the below table.

(sequence A001567 in OEIS)

Poulet 1 to 15 341 11 · 31 561 3 · 11 · 17 645 3 · 5 · 43 1105 5 · 13 · 17 1387 19 · 73 1729 7 · 13 · 19 1905 3 · 5 · 127 2047 23 · 89 2465 5 · 17 · 29 2701 37 · 73 2821 7 · 13 · 31 3277 29 · 113 4033 37 · 109 4369 17 · 257 4371 3 · 31 · 47

Poulet 16 to 30 4681 31 · 151 5461 43 · 127 6601 7 · 23 · 41 7957 73 · 109 8321 53 · 157 8481 3 · 11 · 257 8911 7 · 19 · 67 10261 31 · 331 10585 5 · 29 · 73 11305 5 · 7 · 17 · 19 12801 3 · 17 · 251 13741 7 · 13 · 151 13747 59 · 233 13981 11 · 31 · 41 14491 43 · 337

Poulet 31 to 45 15709 23 · 683 15841 7 · 31 · 73 16705 5 · 13 · 257 18705 3 · 5 · 29 · 43 18721 97 · 193 19951 71 · 281 23001 3 · 11 · 17 · 41 23377 97 · 241 25761 3 · 31 · 277 29341 13 · 37 · 61 30121 7 · 13 · 331 30889 17 · 23 · 79 31417 89 · 353 31609 73 · 433 31621 103 · 307

Poulet 46 to 60 33153 3 · 43 · 257 34945 5 · 29 · 241 35333 89 · 397 39865 5 · 7 · 17 · 67 41041 7 · 11 · 13 · 41 41665 5 · 13 · 641 42799 127 · 337 46657 13 · 37 · 97 49141 157 · 313 49981 151 · 331 52633 7 · 73 · 103 55245 3 · 5 · 29 · 127 57421 7 · 13 · 631 60701 101 · 601 60787 89 · 683

A Poulet number all of whose divisors d divide 2^d − 2 is called a super-Poulet number. There are infinitely many Poulet numbers which are not super-Poulet Numbers.

Smallest Fermat pseudoprimes

The smallest pseudoprime for each base a ≤ 200 is given in the following table; the colors mark the number of prime factors. Unlike in the definition at the start of the article, pseudoprimes below a are excluded in the table. (For that to allow pseudoprimes below a, see  A090086) (sequence A007535 in OEIS)

a	smallest p-p	a	smallest p-p	a	smallest p-p	a	smallest p-p
1	4 = 2²	51	65 = 5 · 13	101	175 = 5² · 7	151	175 = 5² · 7
2	341 = 11 · 31	52	85 = 5 · 17	102	133 = 7 · 19	152	153 = 3² · 17
3	91 = 7 · 13	53	65 = 5 · 13	103	133 = 7 · 19	153	209 = 11 · 19
4	15 = 3 · 5	54	55 = 5 · 11	104	105 = 3 · 5 · 7	154	155 = 5 · 31
5	124 = 2² · 31	55	63 = 3² · 7	105	451 = 11 · 41	155	231 = 3 · 7 · 11
6	35 = 5 · 7	56	57 = 3 · 19	106	133 = 7 · 19	156	217 = 7 · 31
7	25 = 5²	57	65 = 5 · 13	107	133 = 7 · 19	157	186 = 2 · 3 · 31
8	9 = 3²	58	133 = 7 · 19	108	341 = 11 · 31	158	159 = 3 · 53
9	28 = 2² · 7	59	87 = 3 · 29	109	117 = 3² · 13	159	247 = 13 · 19
10	33 = 3 · 11	60	341 = 11 · 31	110	111 = 3 · 37	160	161 = 7 · 23
11	15 = 3 · 5	61	91 = 7 · 13	111	190 = 2 · 5 · 19	161	190=2 · 5 · 19
12	65 = 5 · 13	62	63 = 3² · 7	112	121 = 11²	162	481 = 13 · 37
13	21 = 3 · 7	63	341 = 11 · 31	113	133 = 7 · 19	163	186 = 2 · 3 · 31
14	15 = 3 · 5	64	65 = 5 · 13	114	115 = 5 · 23	164	165 = 3 · 5 · 11
15	341 = 11 · 13	65	112 = 2⁴ · 7	115	133 = 7 · 19	165	172 = 2² · 43
16	51 = 3 · 17	66	91 = 7 · 13	116	117 = 3² · 13	166	301 = 7 · 43
17	45 = 3² · 5	67	85 = 5 · 17	117	145 = 5 · 29	167	231 = 3 · 7 · 11
18	25 = 5²	68	69 = 3 · 23	118	119 = 7 · 17	168	169 = 13²
19	45 = 3² · 5	69	85 = 5 · 17	119	177 = 3 · 59	169	231 = 3 · 7 · 11
20	21 = 3 · 7	70	169 = 13²	120	121 = 11²	170	171 = 3² · 19
21	55 = 5 · 11	71	105 = 3 · 5 · 7	121	133 = 7 · 19	171	215 = 5 · 43
22	69 = 3 · 23	72	85 = 5 · 17	122	123 = 3 · 41	172	247 = 13 · 19
23	33 = 3 · 11	73	111 = 3 · 37	123	217 = 7 · 31	173	205 = 5 · 41
24	25 = 5²	74	75 = 3 · 5²	124	125 = 5³	174	175 = 5² · 7
25	28 = 2² · 7	75	91 = 7 · 13	125	133 = 7 · 19	175	319 = 11 · 19
26	27 = 3³	76	77 = 7 · 11	126	247 = 13 · 19	176	177 = 3 · 59
27	65 = 5 · 13	77	247 = 13 · 19	127	153 = 3² · 17	177	196 = 2² · 7²
28	45 = 3² · 5	78	341 = 11 · 31	128	129 = 3 · 43	178	247 = 13 · 19
29	35 = 5 · 7	79	91 = 7 · 13	129	217 = 7 · 31	179	185 = 5 · 37
30	49 = 7²	80	81 = 3⁴	130	217 = 7 · 31	180	217 = 7 · 31
31	49 = 7²	81	85 = 5 · 17	131	143 = 11 · 13	181	195 = 3 · 5 · 13
32	33 = 3 · 11	82	91 = 7 · 13	132	133 = 7 · 19	182	183 = 3 · 61
33	85 = 5 · 17	83	105 = 3 · 5 · 7	133	145 = 5 · 29	183	221 = 13 · 17
34	35 = 5 · 7	84	85 = 5 · 17	134	135 = 3³ · 5	184	185 = 5 · 37
35	51 = 3 · 17	85	129 = 3 · 43	135	221 = 13 · 17	185	217 = 7 · 31
36	91 = 7 · 13	86	87 = 3 · 29	136	265 = 5 · 53	186	187 = 11 · 17
37	45 = 3² · 5	87	91 = 7 · 13	137	148 = 2² · 37	187	217 = 7 · 31
38	39 = 3 · 13	88	91 = 7 · 13	138	259 = 7 · 37	188	189 = 3³ · 7
39	95 = 5 · 19	89	99 = 3² · 11	139	161 = 7 · 23	189	235 = 5 · 47
40	91 = 7 · 13	90	91 = 7 · 13	140	141 = 3 · 47	190	231 = 3 · 7 · 11
41	105 = 3 · 5 · 7	91	115 = 5 · 23	141	355 = 5 · 71	191	217 = 7 · 31
42	205 = 5 · 41	92	93 = 3 · 31	142	143 = 11 · 13	192	217 = 7 · 31
43	77 = 7 · 11	93	301 = 7 · 43	143	213 = 3 · 71	193	276 = 2² · 3 · 23
44	45 = 3² · 5	94	95 = 5 · 19	144	145 = 5 · 29	194	195 = 3 · 5 · 13
45	76 = 2² · 19	95	141 = 3 · 47	145	153 = 3² · 17	195	259 = 7 · 37
46	133 = 7 · 19	96	133 = 7 · 19	146	147 = 3 · 7²	196	205 = 5 · 41
47	65 = 5 · 13	97	105 = 3 · 5 · 7	147	169 = 13²	197	231 = 3 · 7 · 11
48	49 = 7²	98	99 = 3² · 11	148	231 = 3 · 7 · 11	198	247 = 13 · 19
49	66 = 2 · 3 · 11	99	145 = 5 · 29	149	175 = 5² · 7	199	225 = 3² · 5²
50	51 = 3 · 17	100	153 = 3² · 17	150	169 = 13²	200	201 = 3 · 67

First few Fermat pseudoprimes in base a (up to 10000)

a	First few Fermat pseudoprimes in base a (up to 10000)	OEIS sequence
1	4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 42, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 72, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, ... (All composite numbers)	A002808
2	341, 561, 645, 1105, 1387, 1729, 1905, 2047, 2465, 2701, 2821, 3277, 4033, 4369, 4371, 4681, 5461, 6601, 7957, 8321, 8481, 8911	A001567
3	91, 121, 286, 671, 703, 949, 1105, 1541, 1729, 1891, 2465, 2665, 2701, 2821, 3281, 3367, 3751, 4961, 5551, 6601, 7381, 8401, 8911	A005935
4	15, 85, 91, 341, 435, 451, 561, 645, 703, 1105, 1247, 1271, 1387, 1581, 1695, 1729, 1891, 1905, 2047, 2071, 2465, 2701, 2821, 3133, 3277, 3367, 3683, 4033, 4369, 4371, 4681, 4795, 4859, 5461, 5551, 6601, 6643, 7957, 8321, 8481, 8695, 8911, 9061, 9131, 9211, 9605, 9919	A020136
5	4, 124, 217, 561, 781, 1541, 1729, 1891, 2821, 4123, 5461, 5611, 5662, 5731, 6601, 7449, 7813, 8029, 8911, 9881	A005936
6	35, 185, 217, 301, 481, 1105, 1111, 1261, 1333, 1729, 2465, 2701, 2821, 3421, 3565, 3589, 3913, 4123, 4495, 5713, 6533, 6601, 8029, 8365, 8911, 9331, 9881	A005937
7	6, 25, 325, 561, 703, 817, 1105, 1825, 2101, 2353, 2465, 3277, 4525, 4825, 6697, 8321	A005938
8	9, 21, 45, 63, 65, 105, 117, 133, 153, 231, 273, 341, 481, 511, 561, 585, 645, 651, 861, 949, 1001, 1105, 1281, 1365, 1387, 1417, 1541, 1649, 1661, 1729, 1785, 1905, 2047, 2169, 2465, 2501, 2701, 2821, 3145, 3171, 3201, 3277, 3605, 3641, 4005, 4033, 4097, 4369, 4371, 4641, 4681, 4921, 5461, 5565, 5963, 6305, 6533, 6601, 6951, 7107, 7161, 7957, 8321, 8481, 8911, 9265, 9709, 9773, 9881, 9945	A020137
9	4, 8, 28, 52, 91, 121, 205, 286, 364, 511, 532, 616, 671, 697, 703, 946, 949, 1036, 1105, 1288, 1387, 1541, 1729, 1891, 2465, 2501, 2665, 2701, 2806, 2821, 2926, 3052, 3281, 3367, 3751, 4376, 4636, 4961, 5356, 5551, 6364, 6601, 6643, 7081, 7381, 7913, 8401, 8695, 8744, 8866, 8911	A020138
10	9, 33, 91, 99, 259, 451, 481, 561, 657, 703, 909, 1233, 1729, 2409, 2821, 2981, 3333, 3367, 4141, 4187, 4521, 5461, 6533, 6541, 6601, 7107, 7471, 7777, 8149, 8401, 8911	A005939
11	10, 15, 70, 133, 190, 259, 305, 481, 645, 703, 793, 1105, 1330, 1729, 2047, 2257, 2465, 2821, 4577, 4921, 5041, 5185, 6601, 7869, 8113, 8170, 8695, 8911, 9730	A020139
12	65, 91, 133, 143, 145, 247, 377, 385, 703, 1045, 1099, 1105, 1649, 1729, 1885, 1891, 2041, 2233, 2465, 2701, 2821, 2983, 3367, 3553, 5005, 5365, 5551, 5785, 6061, 6305, 6601, 8911, 9073	A020140
13	4, 6, 12, 21, 85, 105, 231, 244, 276, 357, 427, 561, 1099, 1785, 1891, 2465, 2806, 3605, 5028, 5149, 5185, 5565, 6601, 7107, 8841, 8911, 9577, 9637	A020141
14	15, 39, 65, 195, 481, 561, 781, 793, 841, 985, 1105, 1111, 1541, 1891, 2257, 2465, 2561, 2665, 2743, 3277, 5185, 5713, 6501, 6533, 6541, 7107, 7171, 7449, 7543, 7585, 8321, 9073	A020142
15	14, 341, 742, 946, 1477, 1541, 1687, 1729, 1891, 1921, 2821, 3133, 3277, 4187, 6541, 6601, 7471, 8701, 8911, 9073	A020143
16	15, 51, 85, 91, 255, 341, 435, 451, 561, 595, 645, 703, 1105, 1247, 1261, 1271, 1285, 1387, 1581, 1687, 1695, 1729, 1891, 1905, 2047, 2071, 2091, 2431, 2465, 2701, 2821, 3133, 3277, 3367, 3655, 3683, 4033, 4369, 4371, 4681, 4795, 4859, 5083, 5151, 5461, 5551, 6601, 6643, 7471, 7735, 7957, 8119, 8227, 8245, 8321, 8481, 8695, 8749, 8911, 9061, 9131, 9211, 9605, 9919	A020144
17	4, 8, 9, 16, 45, 91, 145, 261, 781, 1111, 1228, 1305, 1729, 1885, 2149, 2821, 3991, 4005, 4033, 4187, 4912, 5365, 5662, 5833, 6601, 6697, 7171, 8481, 8911	A020145
18	25, 49, 65, 85, 133, 221, 323, 325, 343, 425, 451, 637, 931, 1105, 1225, 1369, 1387, 1649, 1729, 1921, 2149, 2465, 2701, 2821, 2825, 2977, 3325, 4165, 4577, 4753, 5525, 5725, 5833, 5941, 6305, 6517, 6601, 7345, 8911, 9061	A020146
19	6, 9, 15, 18, 45, 49, 153, 169, 343, 561, 637, 889, 905, 906, 1035, 1105, 1629, 1661, 1849, 1891, 2353, 2465, 2701, 2821, 2955, 3201, 4033, 4681, 5461, 5466, 5713, 6223, 6541, 6601, 6697, 7957, 8145, 8281, 8401, 8869, 9211, 9997	A020147
20	21, 57, 133, 231, 399, 561, 671, 861, 889, 1281, 1653, 1729, 1891, 2059, 2413, 2501, 2761, 2821, 2947, 3059, 3201, 4047, 5271, 5461, 5473, 5713, 5833, 6601, 6817, 7999, 8421, 8911	A020148
21	4, 10, 20, 55, 65, 85, 221, 703, 793, 1045, 1105, 1852, 2035, 2465, 3781, 4630, 5185, 5473, 5995, 6541, 7363, 8695, 8965, 9061	A020149
22	21, 69, 91, 105, 161, 169, 345, 483, 485, 645, 805, 1105, 1183, 1247, 1261, 1541, 1649, 1729, 1891, 2037, 2041, 2047, 2413, 2465, 2737, 2821, 3241, 3605, 3801, 5551, 5565, 5963, 6019, 6601, 6693, 7081, 7107, 7267, 7665, 8119, 8365, 8421, 8911, 9453	A020150
23	22, 33, 91, 154, 165, 169, 265, 341, 385, 451, 481, 553, 561, 638, 946, 1027, 1045, 1065, 1105, 1183, 1271, 1729, 1738, 1749, 2059, 2321, 2465, 2501, 2701, 2821, 2926, 3097, 3445, 4033, 4081, 4345, 4371, 4681, 5005, 5149, 6253, 6369, 6533, 6541, 7189, 7267, 7957, 8321, 8365, 8651, 8745, 8911, 8965, 9805	A020151
24	25, 115, 175, 325, 553, 575, 805, 949, 1105, 1541, 1729, 1771, 1825, 1975, 2413, 2425, 2465, 2701, 2737, 2821, 2885, 3781, 4207, 4537, 6601, 6931, 6943, 7081, 7189, 7471, 7501, 7813, 8725, 8911, 9085, 9361, 9809	A020152
25	4, 6, 8, 12, 24, 28, 39, 66, 91, 124, 217, 232, 276, 403, 426, 451, 532, 561, 616, 703, 781, 804, 868, 946, 1128, 1288, 1541, 1729, 1891, 2047, 2701, 2806, 2821, 2911, 2926, 3052, 3126, 3367, 3592, 3976, 4069, 4123, 4207, 4564, 4636, 4686, 5321, 5461, 5551, 5611, 5662, 5731, 5963, 6601, 7449, 7588, 7813, 8029, 8646, 8911, 9881, 9976	A020153
26	9, 15, 25, 27, 45, 75, 133, 135, 153, 175, 217, 225, 259, 425, 475, 561, 589, 675, 703, 775, 925, 1035, 1065, 1147, 2465, 3145, 3325, 3385, 3565, 3825, 4123, 4525, 4741, 4921, 5041, 5425, 6093, 6475, 6525, 6601, 6697, 8029, 8695, 8911, 9073	A020154
27	26, 65, 91, 121, 133, 247, 259, 286, 341, 365, 481, 671, 703, 949, 1001, 1105, 1541, 1649, 1729, 1891, 2071, 2465, 2665, 2701, 2821, 2981, 2993, 3146, 3281, 3367, 3605, 3751, 4033, 4745, 4921, 4961, 5299, 5461, 5551, 5611, 5621, 6305, 6533, 6601, 7381, 7585, 7957, 8227, 8321, 8401, 8911, 9139, 9709, 9809, 9841, 9881, 9919	A020155
28	9, 27, 45, 87, 145, 261, 361, 529, 561, 703, 783, 785, 1105, 1305, 1413, 1431, 1885, 2041, 2413, 2465, 2871, 3201, 3277, 4553, 4699, 5149, 5181, 5365, 7065, 8149, 8321, 8401, 9841	A020156
29	4, 14, 15, 21, 28, 35, 52, 91, 105, 231, 268, 341, 364, 469, 481, 561, 651, 793, 871, 1105, 1729, 1876, 1897, 2105, 2257, 2821, 3484, 3523, 4069, 4371, 4411, 5149, 5185, 5356, 5473, 5565, 5611, 6097, 6601, 7161, 7294, 8321, 8401, 8421, 8841, 8911	A020157
30	49, 91, 133, 217, 247, 341, 403, 469, 493, 589, 637, 703, 871, 899, 901, 931, 1273, 1519, 1537, 1729, 2059, 2077, 2821, 3097, 3277, 3283, 3367, 3577, 4081, 4097, 4123, 5729, 6031, 6061, 6097, 6409, 6601, 6817, 7657, 8023, 8029, 8401, 8911, 9881	A020158

For more information (base 31 to 100), see  A020159 to  A020228, and for all bases up to 150, see table of Fermat pseudoprimes (text in German), this page does not define n is a pseudoprime to a base congruent to 1 or -1 (mod n)

Which bases b make n a Fermat pseudoprime?

The following is a table about all base b < n which n is a Fermat pseudoprime (all composite number is a pseudoprime to base 1, and for b > n, the solutions are just shifted by k*n for k > 0), if a composite number n is not listed in the table (or n is in the sequence A209211), then n is a pseudoprime only in base 1, or the bases which congruent to 1 (mod n) (that is, the number of the values of b is 1), these ns are up to 180)

n	bases b which n is a Fermat pseudoprime (< n)	number of the bases of b (< n) (sequence A063994 in OEIS)
9	1, 8	2
15	1, 4, 11, 14	4
21	1, 8, 13, 20	4
25	1, 7, 18, 24	4
27	1, 26	2
28	1, 9, 25	3
33	1, 10, 23, 32	4
35	1, 6, 29, 34	4
39	1, 14, 25, 38	4
45	1, 8, 17, 19, 26, 28, 37, 44	8
49	1, 18, 19, 30, 31, 48	6
51	1, 16, 35, 50	4
52	1, 9, 29	3
55	1, 21, 34, 54	4
57	1, 20, 37, 56	4
63	1, 8, 55, 62	4
65	1, 8, 12, 14, 18, 21, 27, 31, 34, 38, 44, 47, 51, 53, 57, 64	16
66	1, 25, 31, 37, 49	5
69	1, 22, 47, 68	4
70	1, 11, 51	3
75	1, 26, 49, 74	4
76	1, 45, 49	3
77	1, 34, 43, 76	4
81	1, 80	2
85	1, 4, 13, 16, 18, 21, 33, 38, 47, 52, 64, 67, 69, 72, 81, 84	16
87	1, 28, 59, 86	4
91	1, 3, 4, 9, 10, 12, 16, 17, 22, 23, 25, 27, 29, 30, 36, 38, 40, 43, 48, 51, 53, 55, 61, 62, 64, 66, 68, 69, 74, 75, 79, 81, 82, 87, 88, 90	36
93	1, 32, 61, 92	4
95	1, 39, 56, 94	4
99	1, 10, 89, 98	4
105	1, 8, 13, 22, 29, 34, 41, 43, 62, 64, 71, 76, 83, 92, 97, 104	16
111	1, 38, 73, 110	4
112	1, 65, 81	3
115	1, 24, 91, 114	4
117	1, 8, 44, 53, 64, 73, 109, 116	8
119	1, 50, 69, 118	4
121	1, 3, 9, 27, 40, 81, 94, 112, 118, 120	10
123	1, 40, 83, 122	4
124	1, 5, 25	3
125	1, 57, 68, 124	4
129	1, 44, 85, 128	4
130	1, 61, 81	3
133	1, 8, 11, 12, 18, 20, 26, 27, 30, 31, 37, 39, 45, 46, 50, 58, 64, 65, 68, 69, 75, 83, 87, 88, 94, 96, 102, 103, 106, 107, 113, 115, 121, 122, 125, 132	36
135	1, 26, 109, 134	4
141	1, 46, 95, 140	4
143	1, 12, 131, 142	4
145	1, 12, 17, 28, 41, 46, 57, 59, 86, 88, 99, 104, 117, 128, 133, 144	16
147	1, 50, 97, 146	4
148	1, 121, 137	3
153	1, 8, 19, 26, 35, 53, 55, 64, 89, 98, 100, 118, 127, 134, 145, 152	16
154	1, 23, 67	3
155	1, 61, 94, 154	4
159	1, 52, 107, 158	4
161	1, 22, 139, 160	4
165	1, 23, 32, 34, 43, 56, 67, 76, 89, 98, 109, 122, 131, 133, 142, 164	16
169	1, 19, 22, 23, 70, 80, 89, 99, 146, 147, 150, 168	12
171	1, 37, 134, 170	4
172	1, 49, 165	3
175	1, 24, 26, 51, 74, 76, 99, 101, 124, 149, 151, 174	12
176	1, 49, 81, 97, 113	5
177	1, 58, 119, 176	4

For more information (n = 181 to 5000), see, this page does not define n is a pseudoprime to a base congruent to 1 or -1 (mod n). Note that when p is a prime, p² is a Fermat pseudoprime to base b if and only if p is a Wieferich prime to base b. For example, 1093² = 1194649 is a Fermat pseudoprime to base 2, and that 11² = 121 is a Fermat pseudoprime to base 3.

The number of the values of b for n are (For n prime, the number of the values of b must be n - 1, since all b satisfy the Fermat little theorem)

1, 1, 2, 1, 4, 1, 6, 1, 2, 1, 10, 1, 12, 1, 4, 1, 16, 1, 18, 1, 4, 1, 22, 1, 4, 1, 2, 3, 28, 1, 30, 1, 4, 1, 4, 1, 36, 1, 4, 1, 40, 1, 42, 1, 8, 1, 46, 1, 6, 1, ... (sequence A063994 in OEIS)

The least base b > 1 which n is a pseudoprime to base b (or prime number) are

2, 3, 2, 5, 2, 7, 2, 9, 8, 11, 2, 13, 2, 15, 4, 17, 2, 19, 2, 21, 8, 23, 2, 25, 7, 27, 26, 9, 2, 31, 2, 33, 10, 35, 6, 37, 2, 39, 14, 41, 2, 43, 2, 45, 8, 47, 2, 49, 18, 51, ... (sequence A105222 in OEIS)

The number of the values of b for n must divides $\varphi$(n), or A000010(n) = 1, 1, 2, 2, 4, 2, 6, 4, 6, 4, 10, 4, 12, 6, 8, 8, 16, 6, 18, 8, 12, 10, 22, 8, 20, 12, 18, 12, 28, 8, 30, 16, 20, 16, 24, 12, 36, 18, 24, 16, 40, 12, 42, 20, 24, 22, 46, 16, 42, 20, ... (The quotient can be any natural number, and the quotient = 1 if and only if n is a prime or a Carmichael number (561, 1105, 1729, 2465, 2821, 6601, 8911, 10585, 15841, ... A002997), the quotient = 2 if and only if n is in the sequence: 4, 6, 15, 91, 703, 1891, 2701, 11305, 12403, 13981, 18721, ... A191311)

The least number with n values of b are (or 0 if no such number exists)

1, 3, 28, 5, 66, 7, 232, 45, 190, 11, 276, 13, 1106, 0, 286, 17, 1854, 19, 3820, 891, 2752, 23, 1128, 595, 2046, 0, 532, 29, 1770, 31, ... (sequence A064234 in OEIS) (if and only if n is a nontotient, then the nth term of this sequence is 0)

Weak pseudoprimes

A composite number n which satisfy that bⁿ = b (mod n) is called weak pseudoprime to base b, the least weak pseudoprime to base b are

4, 341, 6, 4, 4, 6, 6, 4, 4, 6, 10, 4, 4, 14, 6, 4, 4, 6, 6, 4, 4, 6, 22, 4, 4, 9, 6, 4, 4, 6, 6, 4, 4, 6, 9, 4, 4, 38, 6, 4, 4, 6, 6, 4, 4, 6, 46, 4, 4, 10, ... (sequence A000790 in OEIS)

If we require that n > b, they are

4, 341, 6, 6, 10, 10, 14, 9, 12, 15, 15, 22, 21, 15, 21, 20, 34, 25, 38, 21, 28, 33, 33, 25, 28, 27, 39, 36, 35, 49, 49, 33, 44, 35, 45, 42, 45, 39, 57, 52, 82, 66, 77, 45, 55, 69, 65, 49, 56, 51, ... (sequence A239293 in OEIS)

Euler–Jacobi pseudoprimes

Main article: Euler–Jacobi pseudoprime

Another approach is to use more refined notions of pseudoprimality, e.g. strong pseudoprimes or Euler–Jacobi pseudoprimes, for which there are no analogues of Carmichael numbers. This leads to probabilistic algorithms such as the Solovay–Strassen primality test, the Baillie-PSW primality test, and the Miller–Rabin primality test, which produce what are known as industrial-grade primes. Industrial-grade primes are integers for which primality has not been "certified" (i.e. rigorously proven), but have undergone a test such as the Miller–Rabin test which has nonzero, but arbitrarily low, probability of failure.

Applications

The rarity of such pseudoprimes has important practical implications. For example, public-key cryptography algorithms such as RSA require the ability to quickly find large primes. The usual algorithm to generate prime numbers is to generate random odd numbers and test them for primality. However, deterministic primality tests are slow. If the user is willing to tolerate an arbitrarily small chance that the number found is not a prime number but a pseudoprime, it is possible to use the much faster and simpler Fermat primality test.

External links

• W. F. Galway and Jan Feitsma, Tables of pseudoprimes and related data (comprehensive list of all pseudoprimes below 2⁶⁴, including factorization, strong pseudoprimes, and Carmichael numbers)
• A research for pseudoprime