Hebrew diacritics
Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
Letters in black, pointing in red, cantillation in blue[1]
Hebrew orthography includes several types of diacritics:
- (Mainly) a set of mostly optional ancillary glyphs known as niqqud in Hebrew, which are used either to represent vowels or to distinguish between alternate pronunciations of several letters of the Hebrew alphabet (the rafe sign is sometimes also listed as part of the niqqud system)[*];
- geresh and gershayim, two diacritics that are not considered a part of niqqud, each of which has several functions (e.g. to denote Hebrew numerals);
- and cantillation, "accents" which show how Biblical passages should be chanted and which sometimes possess a punctuating function.
Several diacritical systems were developed in the Early Middle Ages. The most widespread system, and the only one still used to a significant degree today, was created by the Masoretes of Tiberias in the second half of the first millennium in the Land of Israel (see Masoretic Text, Tiberian Hebrew). The Niqqud signs and cantillation marks developed by the Masoretes are small compared to consonants, so they could be added to the consonantal texts without retranscribing them.
Contents
Pointing (niqqud)
<templatestyles src="Module:Hatnote/styles.css"></templatestyles>
In modern Israeli orthography, vowel and consonant pointing is seldom used, except in specialised texts such as dictionaries, poetry, or texts for children or for new immigrants. Israeli Hebrew has five vowel phonemes—/i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/—but many more written symbols for them. Niqqud distinguish the following vowels and consonants; for more detail, see the main article.
| Name | Symbol | Unicode | Israeli Hebrew | Keyboard input | Hebrew | Alternate Names |
|||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| IPA | Transliteration | English Example |
Letter | Key | |||||
| Hiriq |  |
U+05B4 | [i] | i | seek | 4 |  |
<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />חִירִיק | ‒ |
| Tzeire |  |
U+05B5 | [e̞] and [ei̯] | e and ei | men | 5 |  |
<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />צֵירֵי or <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />צֵירֶה | |
| Segol |  |
U+05B6 | [e̞], ([ei̯] with succeeding yod) |
e, (ei with succeeding yod) |
men | 6 |  |
<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />סֶגוֹל | |
| Patakh |  |
U+05B7 | [ä] | a | far | 7 |  |
<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />פַּתָּח | |
| Kamatz | סָ | U+05B8 | [ä], (or [o̞]) | a, (or o) | far | 8 |  |
<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />קָמָץ | |
| Sin dot (left) |  |
U+05C2 | [s] | s | sour | 9 |  |
<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />שִׂי״ן | |
| Shin dot (right) |  |
U+05C1 | [ʃ] | sh | shop | 0 |  |
<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />שִׁי״ן | |
| Holam Haser |
|
U+05B9 | [o̞] | o | bore | - |  |
<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />חוֹלָם חָסֵר | |
| Holam Male or Vav Haluma | וֹ | U+05B9 | <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />חוֹלָם מָלֵא | ||||||
| Dagesh or Mappiq;
Shuruk or Vav Shruqa |
 |
U+05BC | N/A | N/A | N/A | = |  |
<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />דָּגֵשׁ or <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />מַפִּיק | |
 |
U+05BC | [u] | u | cool | <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />שׁוּרוּק | ||||
| Kubutz |  |
U+05BB | \ |  |
<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />קֻבּוּץ | ||||
| Below: Two vertical dots underneath the letter (called sh'va) make the vowel very short. | |||||||||
| Sh'va |  |
U+05B0 | [e̞] or [-] | apostrophe, e, or nothing |
silent | ~ |  |
<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />שְׁוָא | ‒ |
| Reduced Segol |  |
U+05B1 | [e̞] | e | men | 1 |  |
<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />חֲטַף סֶגוֹל | Hataf Segol |
| Reduced Patakh |  |
U+05B2 | [ä] | a | far | 2 |  |
<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />חֲטַף פַּתָּח | Hataf Patakh |
| Reduced Kamatz |
|
U+05B3 | [o̞] | o | bore | 3 |  |
<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />חֲטַף קָמָץ | Hataf Kamatz |
Note 1: The symbol "ס" represents whatever Hebrew letter is used.
Note 2: The letter "ש" is used since it can only be represented by that letter.
Note 3: The dagesh, mappiq, and shuruk are different, however, they look the same and are inputted in the same manner. Also, they are represented by the same Unicode character.
Note 4: The letter "ו" is used since it can only be represented by that letter.
Vowel comparison table
| Vowel Comparison Table | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vowel length[1] | IPA | Transliteration | English example |
|||||
| Long | Short | Very short | ||||||
| [3] | [2] | [ä] | a | far | ||||
| [4] | [3][4] | [2] | [o̞] | o | cold | |||
| [5] | [5] | N/A | [u] | u | you | |||
| N/A | [i] | i | ski | |||||
| [2] | [e̞] | e | let | |||||
Notes:
- [1] : These vowels lengths are not manifested in Modern Hebrew.
- [2] : Adding two vertical dots (sh'va) <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ְ to the "short-vowel" diacritic produces the diacritic for "very short vowel" (Hebrew: חטף ḥatáf ).
- [3] : The short /o/ and long /a/ are represented by the same diacritic.
- [4] : The short /o/ is usually promoted to a long /o/ (holam male, vav with dot above) in Israeli writing for the sake of disambiguation.
- [5] : The short /u/ is usually promoted to a long /u/ (shuruk, vav with middle dot) in Israeli writing for the sake of disambiguation.
Meteg
<templatestyles src="Module:Hatnote/styles.css"></templatestyles>
Meteg is a vertical bar placed below a character next to the niqqud for various purposes, including marking vowel length and secondary stress. Its shape is identical to the cantillation mark sof pasuq.
Geresh
<templatestyles src="Module:Hatnote/styles.css"></templatestyles>
Geresh is a mark, ⟨<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />׳⟩ that may be used as a diacritic, as a punctuation mark for initialisms, or as a marker of Hebrew numerals. It is also used in cantillation.
As a diacritic, the geresh is combined with the following consonants:
| letter | value | with geresh |
value | usage |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ג | [ɡ] | <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ג׳ | [dʒ] | slang and loanwords (phonologically native sounds) |
| <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ז | [z] | <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ז׳ | [ʒ] | |
| <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />צ | [ts] | <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />צ׳ | [tʃ] | |
| (non standard[2]) | ||||
| <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ו | [v] | <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ו׳[2] | [w] | |
| <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ד | [d] | <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ד׳ | [ð] | For transliteration of sounds in foreign languages (non-native sounds, i.e. sounds foreign to Hebrew phonology).[3] |
| <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ח | [ħ] | <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ח׳ | [χ][3] | |
| <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ס | [s] | <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ס׳ | [sˤ] | |
| <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ע | [ʕ] | <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ע׳ | [ɣ] | |
| <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ר | [r] | <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ר׳ | ||
| <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ת | [t] | <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ת׳ | [θ] |
Cantillation
<templatestyles src="Module:Hatnote/styles.css"></templatestyles>
Cantillation has a more limited use than vowel pointing, as it is only used for reciting the Tanakh, and is not found in children's books or dictionaries.
Gershayim
<templatestyles src="Module:Hatnote/styles.css"></templatestyles>
Gershayim between the penultimate and last letters ( <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />״ e.g. <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />פזצט״א) marks acronyms, alphabetic numerals, names of Hebrew letters, linguistic roots and, in older texts, transcriptions of foreign words. Placed above a letter ( <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />֞ e.g. <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />פְּרִ֞י) it is one of the cantillation marks.
Disputes among Protestant Christians
Protestant literalists who believe that the Hebrew text of the Old Testament is the inspired Word of God are divided on the question of whether or not the vowel points should be considered an inspired part of the Old Testament. In 1624, Louis Cappel, a French Huguenot scholar at Saumur, published a work in which he concluded that the vowel points were a later addition to the biblical text and that the vowel points were added not earlier than the fifth century AD. This assertion was hotly contested by Swiss theologian Johannes Buxtorf II in 1648. Brian Walton's 1657 polyglot bible followed Cappel in revising the vowel points. In 1675, the 2nd and 3rd canons of the so-called Helvetic Consensus of the Swiss Reformed Church confirmed Buxtorf's view as orthodox and affirmed that the vowel points were inspired.
See also
Notes
- *^ The rafe sign (<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />רפה, <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" /> ֿ ) is standardly used to mark fricative consonants in the YIVO orthography of Yiddish; in Hebrew it is generally no longer regularly used and in modern printed texts its use has been largely discontinued. In masoretic manuscripts and some other older texts the soft fricative consonants and sometimes matres lectionis are indicated by this sign.
References
- ↑ Cantillation
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Vav with geresh, "<templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ו׳", is non standard and its usage is therefore inconsistent: Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. issued by the Academy of the Hebrew Language states that both [v] and [w] be indistinguishably represented in Hebrew using the letter Vav. To pronounce foreign words and loanwords containing the sound [w], Hebrew readers must therefore rely on former knowledge and context, see also pronunciation of Hebrew Vav.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 The sound [χ] represented by <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ח׳ is a native sound in Hebrew; the geresh is however used only to distinguish Arabic "خ" from "ح" when transcribing Arabic (in which context just <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ח—without geresh—represents "ح" / [ħ]), whereas in everyday usage <templatestyles src="Script/styles_hebrew.css" />ח without geresh is pronounced [ħ] only dialectically but [χ] commonly.
External links
- A free online course to learn the Hebrew Vowel System
- Rules for Spelling without Niqqud - a simplified version of the Rules, published on the Academy of the Hebrew Language website.
- Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar, §5m for usage of Geresh in abbreviations; §7, §8, §9, §10 for vowel signs; §12, §13, §14 for Dagesh, Mappiq and Rafe; §15, §16 for the cantillation signs and Maqqeph.
- Hebrew tutorial on how to use diacritics in Word
Important: There is currently a serious bug affecting Hebrew diacritics in all Wikimedia projects. See Wikipedia:Niqqud for a discussion of the problem in English, and click the language link in the sidebar for an extensive analysis of the problem in Hebrew.
