Khmer grammar
Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. This article describes the grammar of the Khmer (Cambodian) language, focusing on the standard dialect.
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Word formation
Khmer is primarily an analytic language, with no inflection. There is some derivation by means of prefixes and infixes, but this is not always productive in the modern language,[1] as these elements are often crystallized in words inherited from Old Khmer. Even in Old Khmer, the same affix can have multiple functions (for example, it may serve as a nominalizer in one word and as a causativizer in another).
A common prefix is ការ [kaː-], used to convert verbs to nouns denoting actions or activities. A common infix has the form [-ɑm(n)-] or [-ɑn-] (or with other vowels), inserted after an initial consonant, especially to convert adjectives or verbs into nouns.
Compounding is common; in a compound of two nouns, the head generally comes first, which is often the reverse of the English order; for example "duck egg" is ពងទា [pɔːŋ tiə], literally "egg-duck".
Word order
Since Khmer is an analytic language, word order is relatively fixed, as changes in word order are very likely to affect meaning. Khmer is generally a subject–verb–object (SVO) language. Topicalization is common, whereby the topic of the sentence is placed at the start, and the rest of the sentence serves as a comment on that topic.
Prepositions are used rather than postpositions (that is, words meaning "in", "on", etc. precede the noun that they govern).[2] The language is generally head-initial, meaning that modifiers come after the words they modify (adjectives, possessives, demonstratives, relative clauses, etc. follow nouns; adverbs mostly follow verbs; and so on).
Nouns
Khmer nouns have no grammatical gender or singular/plural inflections. There are no articles, but indefiniteness is often expressed by the word for "one" following the noun. Plurality can be marked by postnominal particles, numerals, or reduplication of a following adjective, which, although similar to intensification, is usually not ambiguous due to context:[3]
ឆ្កែធំ [cʰkae tʰom] (dog large) = large dog
ឆ្កែធំៗ [cʰkae tʰom tʰom] (dog large large) = large dogs or a very large dog
ឆ្កែបី [cʰkae ɓəj] (dog three) = three dogs
ឆ្កែខ្លះ [cʰkae kʰlah] (dog some) = some dogs
Possessives are formed by placing the noun or pronoun representing the possessor after the main noun, often with the word របស់ [rəbɑh] between them. (The word របស់ is also a noun meaning "thing".)
Numbers and classifiers
In Khmer, a number that indicates quantity follows the noun.
សៀវភៅបួន [siəw pʰɨw ɓuən] (book four) = four books
Exceptions include nouns indicating passage of time such as hours or days, units of measurements and currencies, all of which function as noun classifiers without the explicit mention of what is being classified. Reversal of the order can lead to different meanings such as:
បីម៉ោង [ɓəj maoŋ] (three hour) = three hours
ម៉ោងបី [maoŋ ɓəj] (hour three) = three o'clock
Classifying particles for use along with numerals and nouns exist although are not obligatory as in, for example, Thai, except in introductory clauses. They are used for clarity or formality. Number precedes classifiers.
សត្វក្របីពីរ [sat krɑbəj piː] (animal buffalo two) = two buffaloes
សត្វក្របីពីរក្បាល [sat krɑbəj piː kbaːl] (animal buffalo two + animal classifier) = two (head of) buffaloes
The following example illustrates the unnecessary mention of what is being classified:
បីរៀល [ɓəj riəl] (three riel) = three riels
លុយបីរៀល [luj ɓəj riəl] (money three riel) = three riels of money or simply three riels
Counting in Khmer is based on a biquinary system (the numbers from 6 to 9 have the form "five one", "five two", etc.) However, the words for multiples of ten from 30 to 90 are not related to the basic Khmer numbers, but are probably borrowed from Thai. The Khmer script has its own versions of the Arabic numerals.
The principal number words are listed in the following table, which gives Western and Khmer digits, Khmer spelling and IPA transcription.[1]
| 0 | ០ | សូន្យ | [soun] | ||||
| 1 | ១ | មួយ | [muəj] | ||||
| 2 | ២ | ពីរ | [piː] | 20 | ២០ | ម្ភៃ | [mphej] |
| 3 | ៣ | បី | [ɓəːj] | 30 | ៣០ | សាមសិប | [saːm səp] |
| 4 | ៤ | បួន | [ɓuən] | 40 | ៤០ | សែសិប | [sae sǝp] |
| 5 | ៥ | ប្រាំ | [pram] | 50 | ៥០ | ហាសិប | [haː səp] |
| 6 | ៦ | ប្រាំមូយ | [pram muəj] | 60 | ៦០ | ហុកសិប | [hok səp] |
| 7 | ៧ | ប្រាំពីរ | [pram piː], [pram pɨl] | 70 | ៧០ | ចិតសិប | [cət səp] |
| 8 | ៨ | ប្រាំបី | [pram ɓəːj] | 80 | ៨០ | ប៉ែតសិប | [paet səp] |
| 9 | ៩ | ប្រាំបួន | [pram ɓuən] | 90 | ៩០ | កៅសិប | [kaʋ səp] |
| 10 | ១០ | ដប់ | [ɗɑp] | 100 | ១០០ | មួយរយ | [muəj rɔːj] |
Intermediate numbers are formed by compounding the above elements. Powers of ten are denoted by រយ [rɔːj] (100), ពាន់ [pŏən] (1,000), ម៉ឺន [məɨn] (10,000), សែន [saen] (100,000), លាន [liən] (1,000,000) and កោដិ [kaot] (10,000,000). For more information, see Khmer numerals.
Ordinal numbers are formed by placing the particle ទី [tiː] before the corresponding cardinal number.
Demonstratives
In Khmer, demonstratives follow the nouns they modify. In standard literary Khmer, there are two degrees of distance, though there are other distinctions in colloquial language. Demonstratives can also function as articles, but only after introductory clauses.
| Demonstrative | Alternative Forms | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| នេះ (nih) | ហ្នឹង (nəŋ) | This |
| នោះ (nuh) | ហ្នុង (noŋ) | That |
Pronouns
The pronominal system is complex, full of honorific variations. There is generally no single pronoun appropriate for all situations, with the choice of pronoun based on age, gender, and relationship. Nouns referring to a specific person like brother or uncle can be used as pronouns when even when directly addressing the person.
For some examples of typical pronoun forms, see Khmer language – Social registers.
Adjectives
Adjectives in Khmer follows the noun; doubling the adjective can indicate plurality or can intensify the meaning (see Nouns above). Adjectives follow verbs when they function as adverbs. Adjectives in Khmer are actually stative verbs. They are used without a copula, and can be negated like other verbs.
Comparatives are expressed using the word ជាង /ciəŋ/: "A X /ciəŋ/ [B]" (A is more X [than B]). The most common way to express superlatives is with ជាងគេ /ciəŋ keː/: "A X /ciəŋ keː/" (A is X-est of all).[3]
Reduplication
In Khmer, nouns and adjectives can be reduplicated. Reduplication can either occur as perfect reduplicates or by altering the rhyme of words. Khmer also uses compound reduplication where two phonologically unrelated words with similar or identical meanings are compounded.
The Khmer script includes the symbol ៗ, which indicates that the preceding word (or sometimes phrase) is to be repeated.
Verbs
As is typical of most East Asian languages,[4] Khmer verbs do not inflect at all; tense and aspect can be expressed using particles (such as កំពុង [kəmpuŋ], placed before a verb to express continuous aspect) and adverbs (such as "yesterday", "earlier", "tomorrow"), or may be understood from context. Serial verb construction is quite common.
Questions
Yes-no questions can be formed by placing the particle ទេ /teː/ at the end of a sentence. This particle can also serve as an emphatic particle (it is also used in negative sentences, as shown below), and so intonation may be required to indicate that a question is being asked.
In wh-questions, the question word generally remains in its usual grammatical position in the sentence, rather than being brought to the start as in English (that is, wh-fronting does not normally take place).
Negation
Verbs can be negated in three primary fashions, all of which convey a slightly different connotation or formality. The most common method of negation is a discontinuous construction placing មិន "[mɨn]" (not, not to be) before the verb and ending the verb phrase with ទេ "[teː]", which, as a stand-alone word can be either "no" or a particle contradicting a previous statement. Colloquially, the final "ទេ" may be omitted.
ខ្ញុំជឿ [kʰɲom cɨə] - I believe
ខ្ញុំមិនជឿទេ [kʰɲom mɨn cɨə teː] - I don't believe
Another fairly common way of indicating negation uses អត់ (also spelled ⟨ឥត⟩) "[ɑt]" instead of មិន. "អត់", as an independent word, means "without" or "lacking" and expresses a similar connotation when used to negate a verb.
ខ្ញុំអត់ឃ្លានទេ [kʰɲom ɑt khliə̯n teː] - "I am not hungry" or literally, "I (am) without hunger".
A third method is basically identical to the first method except ពុំ "[pum]" is used instead of "[mɨn]". This is used only in literary or very formal contexts.
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Huffman, Franklin. 1967. An outline of Cambodian Grammar. PhD thesis, Cornell University.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Franklin E. Huffman, Modern Spoken Cambodian, Yale University, 1970.
- ↑ East and Southeast Asian Languages: A First Look at Oxford University Press Online
