List of Presidents of the United States by age

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This is a list of presidents of the United States by age. The first table charts the age of each United States president at the time of presidential inauguration (first inauguration if elected to multiple and consecutive terms), upon leaving office, and at the time of death. Where the president is still living, their lifespan is calculated up to March 19, 2024. The second table includes those presidents who had the distinction among their peers of being the oldest living president, and charts both when they became and ceased to be the oldest living.

Age of president

Age of presidents when assuming office approximately follows a bell curve

The median age upon accession to the presidency is 55 years and 354 days. This falls midway between how old Grover Cleveland (Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. at his second inauguration) and Richard Nixon (Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.) were at the time each was sworn in as president.

The youngest person to assume the presidency was Theodore Roosevelt, who, at the age of Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist., succeeded to the office after the assassination of William McKinley. The youngest to become president by election was John F. Kennedy, who was Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist., at his inauguration. The oldest person to assume the presidency was Joe Biden, at the age of Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist., on Inauguration Day; he simultaneously became the oldest person ever to serve as the nation's president.[1]

Assassinated at age Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist., John F. Kennedy is the president with the shortest lifespan and the youngest president to depart from office. The youngest president to leave office at the conclusion of a normal transition was Theodore Roosevelt (age Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.). The oldest president to leave office was Ronald Reagan (age Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.); this distinction will eventually devolve upon Joe Biden.[1]

The president born after the greatest number of his successors is John F. Kennedy. He was born after four of his successors: Lyndon B. Johnson (Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.); Ronald Reagan (Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.); Richard Nixon (Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.); and Gerald Ford (Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.). On the other extreme, Ronald Reagan and Joe Biden were each born before four of their predecessors. Reagan was born before Richard Nixon (Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.), Gerald Ford (Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.), John F. Kennedy (Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.), and Jimmy Carter (Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.). Biden was born before Donald Trump (Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.); George W. Bush (Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.); Bill Clinton (Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.); and Barack Obama (Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.).

The oldest living president is Jimmy Carter, born October 1, 1924 (age Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.). On March 22, 2019, he also became the nation's longest-lived president, surpassing the lifespan of George H. W. Bush, who died at the age of Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.. Additionally, Carter has had the longest post-presidency, now lasting Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.. The youngest living president is Barack Obama, born August 4, 1961 (age Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.). The shortest-lived president who died of natural causes was James K. Polk, who died of cholera at the age of Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.—103 days after he left office.

Six presidents have lived into their 90s. The first to do so, John Adams, was the longest-lived president for nearly two centuries, from 1803 until Ronald Reagan surpassed his lifespan, in October 2001.[2][3] The six nonagenarian presidents, arranged by lifespan:

Presidential age-related data

# President Born Age at
start of presidency
Age at
end of presidency
Post-presidency
timespan
Lifespan
Died Age
01 George Washington Feb 22, 1732[lower-alpha 1] Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Apr 30, 1789
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1797
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Dec 14, 1799 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
02 John Adams Oct 30, 1735[lower-alpha 1] Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1797
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1801
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. July 5, 1826Jul 4, 1826 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
03 Thomas Jefferson Apr 13, 1743[lower-alpha 1] Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1801
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1809
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Jul 4, 1826 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
04 James Madison Mar 16, 1751[lower-alpha 1] Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1809
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1817
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Jun 28, 1836 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
05 James Monroe Apr 28, 1758 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1817
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1825
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Jul 4, 1831 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
06 John Quincy Adams Jul 11, 1767 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1825
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1829
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Feb 23, 1848 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
07 Andrew Jackson Mar 15, 1767 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1829
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1837
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Jun 8, 1845 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
08 Martin Van Buren Dec 5, 1782 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1837
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1841
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Jul 24, 1862 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
09 William Henry Harrison Feb 9, 1773 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1841
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Apr 4, 1841[lower-alpha 2]
00,0010 days Apr 4, 1841 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
10 John Tyler Mar 29, 1790 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Apr 4, 1841
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1845
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Jan 18, 1862 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
11 James K. Polk Nov 2, 1795 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1845
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1849
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Jun 15, 1849 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
12 Zachary Taylor Nov 24, 1784 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1849
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jul 9, 1850[lower-alpha 2]
00,0030 days Jul 9, 1850 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
13 Millard Fillmore Jan 7, 1800 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jul 9, 1850
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1853
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Mar 8, 1874 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
14 Franklin Pierce Nov 23, 1804 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1853
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1857
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Oct 8, 1869 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
15 James Buchanan Apr 23, 1791 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1857
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1861
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Jun 1, 1868 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
16 Abraham Lincoln Feb 12, 1809 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1861
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Apr 15, 1865[lower-alpha 2]
00,0060 days Apr 15, 1865 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
17 Andrew Johnson Dec 29, 1808 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Apr 15, 1865
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1869
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Jul 31, 1875 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
18 Ulysses S. Grant Apr 27, 1822 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1869
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1877
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Jul 23, 1885 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
19 Rutherford B. Hayes Oct 4, 1822 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1877
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1881
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Jan 17, 1893 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
20 James A. Garfield Nov 19, 1831 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1881
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Sep 19, 1881[lower-alpha 2]
00,0020 days Sep 19, 1881 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
21 Chester A. Arthur Oct 5, 1829 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Sep 19, 1881
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1885
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Nov 18, 1886 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
22 Grover Cleveland Mar 18, 1837 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1885
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1889
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.[lower-alpha 3] Jun 24, 1908 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
23 Benjamin Harrison Aug 20, 1833 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1889
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1893
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Mar 13, 1901 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
24 Grover Cleveland Mar 18, 1837 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1893
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1897
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.[lower-alpha 4] Jun 24, 1908 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
25 William McKinley Jan 29, 1843 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1897
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Sep 14, 1901[lower-alpha 2]
00,0070 days Sep 14, 1901 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
26 Theodore Roosevelt Oct 27, 1858 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Sep 14, 1901
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1909
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Jan 6, 1919 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
27 William Howard Taft Sep 15, 1857 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1909
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1913
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Mar 8, 1930 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
28 Woodrow Wilson Dec 28, 1856 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1913
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1921
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Feb 3, 1924 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
29 Warren G. Harding Nov 2, 1865 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1921
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Aug 2, 1923[lower-alpha 2]
00,0040 days Aug 2, 1923 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
30 Calvin Coolidge Jul 4, 1872 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Aug 2, 1923
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1929
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Jan 5, 1933 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
31 Herbert Hoover Aug 10, 1874 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1929
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1933
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Oct 20, 1964 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
32 Franklin D. Roosevelt Jan 30, 1882 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Mar 4, 1933
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Apr 12, 1945[lower-alpha 2]
00,0080 days Apr 12, 1945 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
33 Harry S. Truman May 8, 1884 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Apr 12, 1945
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jan 20, 1953
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Dec 26, 1972 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
34 Dwight D. Eisenhower Oct 14, 1890 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jan 20, 1953
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jan 20, 1961
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Mar 28, 1969 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
35 John F. Kennedy May 29, 1917 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jan 20, 1961
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Nov 22, 1963[lower-alpha 2]
00,0050 days Nov 22, 1963 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
36 Lyndon B. Johnson Aug 27, 1908 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Nov 22, 1963
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jan 20, 1969
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Jan 22, 1973 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
37 Richard Nixon Jan 9, 1913 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jan 20, 1969
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Aug 9, 1974[lower-alpha 5]
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Apr 22, 1994 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
38 Gerald Ford Jul 14, 1913 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Aug 9, 1974
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jan 20, 1977
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Dec 26, 2006 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
39 Jimmy Carter Oct 1, 1924 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jan 20, 1977
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jan 20, 1981
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. 2024-03-19(living) Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
40 Ronald Reagan Feb 6, 1911 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jan 20, 1981
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jan 20, 1989
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Jun 5, 2004 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
41 George H. W. Bush Jun 12, 1924 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jan 20, 1989
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jan 20, 1993
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Nov 30, 2018 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
42 Bill Clinton Aug 19, 1946 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jan 20, 1993
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jan 20, 2001
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. 2024-03-19(living) Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
43 George W. Bush Jul 6, 1946 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jan 20, 2001
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jan 20, 2009
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. 2024-03-19(living) Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
44 Barack Obama Aug 4, 1961 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jan 20, 2009
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jan 20, 2017
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. 2024-03-19(living) Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
45 Donald Trump Jun 14, 1946 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jan 20, 2017
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jan 20, 2021
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. 2024-03-19(living) Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
46 Joe Biden Nov 20, 1942 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jan 20, 2021
Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.(incumbent) (incumbent) 2024-03-19(living) Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
# President Born Age at
start of presidency
Age at
end of presidency
Post-presidency
timespan
Died Age
Lifespan

Notes

  1. 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Birthdate as changed to New Style.
  2. 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Died in office.
  3. Cleveland was president for 2 nonconsecutive terms; this is his first post presidential retirement between his terms (1889–1893).
  4. Cleveland was president for 2 nonconsecutive terms; this is his post presidency retirement counting only from after his second term (1897–1908).
  5. Resigned from office.

Graphical representation

This is a graphical lifespan timeline of the presidents of the United States. They are listed in order of office, with Grover Cleveland listed in the order of his first presidency.

The following chart shows presidents by their age, with the years of their presidency in blue.

Template:United States presidents by age

Oldest living

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Of the 45 people who have served as president, 25 have become the oldest such individual of their time, with one, William Howard Taft, doing so twice. Herbert Hoover held the distinction for the longest period of any, from the death of Calvin Coolidge in January 1933 until his own death 31 years later. Lyndon B. Johnson held it for the shortest, from the death of Harry S. Truman in December 1972 until his own death only 27 days later. Theodore Roosevelt, at age 49, is the youngest individual to become the oldest living president; Jimmy Carter became the oldest to acquire the distinction at age 94. (Nine of these individuals have also had the distinction of being the oldest living U.S. vice president: John Adams, Martin Van Buren, Millard Fillmore, Andrew Johnson, Harry S. Truman, Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, and George H. W. Bush.)

On three occasions the oldest living president lost the distinction not by his death, but by the inauguration of a president who was older: Theodore Roosevelt (born 1858) to William Howard Taft (born 1857) in 1909; Taft to Woodrow Wilson (born 1856) in 1913 (though Taft later regained the honor, as he outlived Wilson); and Richard Nixon (born 1913) to Ronald Reagan (born 1911) in 1981.

Eleven presidents have held the distinction while in office. In the cases of George Washington, William Howard Taft, Woodrow Wilson, and Ronald Reagan this occurred upon their inauguration as they were older than their living predecessors (or, in Washington's case, had no predecessors). In the cases of John Adams, Ulysses S. Grant, Theodore Roosevelt, Herbert Hoover and Richard Nixon, this happened at the same time as their becoming the only living president; in the cases of Andrew Jackson and Benjamin Harrison, the only other living president at the time was a younger predecessor, John Quincy Adams and Grover Cleveland respectively. By contrast, the president who acquired the distinction furthest from his time in office was Jimmy Carter, who had been retired for Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. when he became the oldest living president, upon the death of George H. W. Bush.

President Date range Age at start Age at end Duration
George Washington April 30, 1789* – December 14, 1799 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
John Adams December 14, 1799 – July 4, 1826 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
James Madison July 4, 1826 – June 28, 1836 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Andrew Jackson June 28, 1836 – June 8, 1845 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
John Quincy Adams June 8, 1845 – February 23, 1848 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Martin Van Buren February 23, 1848 – July 24, 1862 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
James Buchanan July 24, 1862 – June 1, 1868 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Millard Fillmore June 1, 1868 – March 8, 1874 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Andrew Johnson March 8, 1874 – July 31, 1875 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Ulysses S. Grant July 31, 1875 – July 23, 1885 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Rutherford B. Hayes July 23, 1885 – January 17, 1893 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Benjamin Harrison January 17, 1893 – March 13, 1901 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Grover Cleveland March 13, 1901 – June 24, 1908 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Theodore Roosevelt June 24, 1908 – March 4, 1909* Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
William Howard Taft March 4, 1909* – March 4, 1913* Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Woodrow Wilson March 4, 1913* – February 3, 1924 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
William Howard Taft February 3, 1924 – March 8, 1930 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Calvin Coolidge March 8, 1930 – January 5, 1933 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Herbert Hoover January 5, 1933 – October 20, 1964 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Harry S. Truman October 20, 1964 – December 26, 1972 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Lyndon B. Johnson December 26, 1972 – January 22, 1973 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Richard Nixon January 22, 1973 – January 20, 1981* Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Ronald Reagan January 20, 1981* – June 5, 2004 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Gerald Ford June 5, 2004 – December 26, 2006 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
George H. W. Bush December 26, 2006 – November 30, 2018 Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
Jimmy Carter November 30, 2018 – present Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist. Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.(living) Script error: The function "age_generic" does not exist.
President Date range Age at start Age at end Time span

Note

* Green text and an asterisk mark the inauguration date of a president older than any living ex-president. Other dates are the deaths of the then-oldest president.

References

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Sources