List of unsuccessful major party candidates for President of the United States

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For a list of all presidential candidates, see List of United States presidential candidates.
File:PartyVotes.png
Popular vote of political parties in United States presidential elections

The United States has had a two-party system for much of its history, and the major parties of the two-party system have dominated presidential elections for most of U.S. history.[1] Since the ratification of the United States Constitution in 1788, there have been 52 unsuccessful major party candidates for President of the United States.[lower-alpha 1] Since 1796, eight third party or independent candidates have won at least ten percent of the popular or electoral vote, but all failed to win the presidency.

Since the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, the winner of any given presidential election is the candidate that receives the majority of the electoral vote. If no individual wins a majority of the electoral vote, then the United States House of Representatives holds a contingent election to determine the election winner; contingent elections have decided the winners of two presidential elections. Since 1824, the national popular vote has been recorded,[2] but the national popular vote does not determine the winner of the presidential election. There have been five presidential elections in which the winner did not win a majority or a plurality of the popular vote.

The two current major parties are the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. At various points prior to the American Civil War, the Federalist Party, the Democratic-Republican Party, the National Republican Party, and the Whig Party were major parties.[1] These six parties have nominated candidates in the vast majority of presidential elections, but six presidential elections deviate from the normal pattern of two major party candidates. There were no major party candidates for president in the presidential election of 1789 and the presidential election of 1792,[lower-alpha 2] both of which were won by George Washington.[4] In the 1812 presidential election, DeWitt Clinton served as the de facto Federalist nominee even though he was a member of the Democratic-Republican Party; Clinton was defeated by Democratic-Republican President James Madison.[5] In the presidential election of 1820, incumbent President James Monroe of the Democratic-Republican Party effectively ran unopposed.[lower-alpha 3] In the 1824 presidential election, four Democratic-Republicans competed in multiple states in the general election as the party was unable to agree on a single nominee.[7] Similarly, in the presidential election of 1836, the Whig Party did not unify around a single candidate and two different Whig candidates competed in multiple states in the general election.[8]

Several former, incumbent, or future presidents have unsuccessfully sought the presidency. Several individuals have unsuccessfully sought the presidency as the candidate of a major party multiple times; only Henry Clay and William Jennings Bryan have done so thrice.[lower-alpha 4] Seven different third parties have nominated a candidate who won at least ten percent of the electoral vote or at least ten percent of the popular vote in a single election, and who was not nominated by a major party in that election. Two of those candidates, Theodore Roosevelt and John C. Breckinridge, finished with the second-highest share of the electoral vote. Since 1796, just one independent candidate, Ross Perot, has accrued more than ten percent of the popular or electoral vote.[10] One third party candidate, Horace Greeley of the Liberal Republican Party, was nominated by a major party only after being nominated by a third party.[11][lower-alpha 5]

List of unsuccessful major party candidates

  • * indicates that the candidate served as the President of the United States at some point in their career
  • † indicates that the candidate won a majority or plurality of the popular vote
  • ‡ indicates that the candidate won a plurality of the electoral vote
  • PV% indicates the share of the popular vote won by that candidate
  • EV% indicates the share of the electoral vote won by that candidate
      Democratic-Republican           Federalist           National Republican           Whig           Liberal Republican           Democratic           Republican
Election Candidate[2][10] Vote[2][10] Running mate
Candidate
(Birth–death)		 Party Office at time
of election[lower-alpha 6]		 Home
state[lower-alpha 7]		 PV% EV%[lower-alpha 8]
1796[lower-alpha 9] Thomas Jefferson*
(1743–1826)[14]		 115px Democratic-Republican   Fmr. Secretary of State VA NR 49.3% Aaron Burr[lower-alpha 9]
1800[lower-alpha 10] John Adams*
(1735–1826)[15]		 115px Federalist   President MA NR 47.1% Charles C. Pinckney[lower-alpha 11]
1804 Charles C. Pinckney
(1746–1825)[17]		 115px Federalist   Fmr. Ambassador SC NR 8% Rufus King
1808 NR 26.7%
1812 DeWitt Clinton
(1769–1828)[18]		 115px Democratic-Republican
and Federalist[lower-alpha 12]		   Lieutenant Governor
and Mayor[lower-alpha 13]		 NY NR 40.8% Jared Ingersoll
1816[lower-alpha 14] Rufus King
(1755–1827)[21]		 115px Federalist   Senator NY NR 15.4% John E. Howard
1824 Andrew Jackson*
(1767–1845)[22]		 115px Democratic-Republican[lower-alpha 15]   Major General TN 41.4%† 37.9%‡ John C. Calhoun[lower-alpha 16]
William H. Crawford
(1772–1834)[23]		 115px Secretary of the Treasury GA 11.2% 15.7% Nathaniel Macon[lower-alpha 16]
Henry Clay
(1777–1852)[24]		 115px Speaker of the House KY 13.0% 14.2% Nathan Sanford[lower-alpha 16]
1828 John Quincy Adams*
(1767–1848)[25]		 115px National Republican   President MA 43.7% 31.8% Richard Rush
1832 Henry Clay
(1777–1852)[24]		 115px National Republican   Senator KY 36.7% 17.1% John Sergeant
1836 William Henry Harrison*
(1773–1841)[26]		 115px Whig[lower-alpha 17]   Fmr. Senator OH 36.6% 24.8% Francis Granger[lower-alpha 18]
Hugh Lawson White
(1773–1840)[29]		 115px Senator TN 9.7% 8.8% John Tyler[lower-alpha 18]
1840 Martin Van Buren*
(1782–1862)[30]		 115px Democratic   President NY 46.9% 20.4% Richard M. Johnson[lower-alpha 19]
1844 Henry Clay
(1777–1852)[24]		 115px Whig   Fmr. Senator KY 48.1% 38.2% Theodore Frelinghuysen
1848 Lewis Cass
(1782–1866)[33]		 115px Democratic   Fmr. Senator MI 42.5% 43.8% William O. Butler
1852 Winfield Scott
(1786–1866)[34]		 115px Whig   Major General NJ 43.9% 14.2% William A. Graham
1856 John C. Frémont
(1813–1891)[35]		 115px Republican[lower-alpha 20]   Colonel[42] CA 33.1% 38.5% William L. Dayton
1860 Stephen A. Douglas
(1813–1861)[43]		 115px Democratic[lower-alpha 21]   Senator IL 29.5% 4% Herschel V. Johnson
1864 George B. McClellan
(1826–1885)[49]		 115px Democratic   Major General NJ 45.0% 9% George H. Pendleton
1868 Horatio Seymour
(1810–1886)[50]		 115px Democratic   Fmr. Governor NY 47.3% 27.2% Francis Preston Blair Jr.
1872 Horace Greeley
(1811–1872)[51]		 115px Liberal Republican
and Democratic[lower-alpha 22]		   Fmr. Representative[lower-alpha 23] NY 43.8% 18.8%[lower-alpha 24] Benjamin Gratz Brown
1876 Samuel Tilden
(1814–1884)[55]		 115px Democratic   Governor NY 50.9%† 49.9% Thomas A. Hendricks
1880 Winfield Scott Hancock
(1824–1886)[56]		 115px Democratic   Major General PA 48.2% 42% William H. English
1884 James G. Blaine
(1830–1893)[57]		 115px Republican   Fmr. Secretary of State ME 48.3% 45.4% John A. Logan
1888 Grover Cleveland*
(1837–1908)[58]		 115px Democratic   President NY 48.7%† 41.9% Allen G. Thurman
1892 Benjamin Harrison*
(1833–1901)[59]		 115px Republican   President IN 43.0% 32.7% Whitelaw Reid
1896 William Jennings Bryan
(1860–1925)[60]		 115px Democratic[lower-alpha 25]   Fmr. Representative NE 46.7% 39.4% Arthur Sewall[lower-alpha 25]
1900 45.5% 34.7% Adlai Stevenson I
1904 Alton B. Parker
(1852–1926)[62]		 115px Democratic   Fmr. state judge[lower-alpha 26] NY 37.6% 29.4% Henry G. Davis
1908 William Jennings Bryan
(1860–1925)[60]		 115px Democratic   Fmr. Representative NE 43.0% 33.5% John W. Kern
1912[lower-alpha 27] William Howard Taft*
(1857–1930)[67]		 115px Republican   President OH 23.2% 1.5% James S. Sherman[lower-alpha 28]
1916 Charles Evans Hughes
(1862–1948)[69]		 115px Republican   Fmr. Associate Justice NY 46.1% 47.8% Charles W. Fairbanks
1920 James M. Cox
(1870–1957)[70]		 115px Democratic   Governor OH 34.1% 23.9% Franklin D. Roosevelt
1924 John W. Davis
(1873–1955)[71]		 115px Democratic   Fmr. Ambassador WV 28.8% 25.6% Charles W. Bryan
1928 Al Smith
(1873–1944)[72]		 115px Democratic   Governor NY 40.8% 16.4% Joseph T. Robinson
1932 Herbert Hoover*
(1874–1964)[73]		 115px Republican   President CA 39.7% 11.1% Charles Curtis
1936 Alf Landon
(1887–1987)[74]		 115px Republican   Governor KS 36.5% 1.5% Frank Knox
1940 Wendell Willkie
(1892–1944)[75]		 115px Republican   None[lower-alpha 29] NY 44.8% 15.4% Charles L. McNary
1944 Thomas E. Dewey
(1902–1971)[76]		 115px Republican   Governor NY 45.9% 18.6% John W. Bricker
1948 45.1% 35.6% Earl Warren
1952 Adlai Stevenson II
(1900–1965)[77]		 115px Democratic   Governor IL 44.3% 16.8% John Sparkman
1956 Fmr. Governor 42.0% 13.7% Estes Kefauver
1960 Richard Nixon*
(1913–1994)[78]		 115px Republican   Vice President CA 49.6% 40.8% Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.
1964 Barry Goldwater
(1909–1998)[79]		 115px Republican   Senator AZ 38.5% 9.7% William E. Miller
1968 Hubert Humphrey
(1911–1978)[80]		 115px Democratic   Vice President MN 42.7% 35.5% Edmund Muskie
1972 George McGovern
(1922–2012)[81]		 115px Democratic   Senator SD 37.5% 3.2% Sargent Shriver[lower-alpha 30]
1976 Gerald Ford*
(1913–2006)[83]		 115px Republican   President MI 48.0% 44.6% Bob Dole
1980 Jimmy Carter*
(born 1924)[84]		 115px Democratic   President GA 41.0% 9.1% Walter Mondale
1984 Walter Mondale
(1928–2021)[85]		 115px Democratic   Fmr. Vice President MN 40.6% 2.4% Geraldine Ferraro
1988 Michael Dukakis
(born 1933)[86]		 115px Democratic   Governor MA 45.7% 20.6% Lloyd Bentsen
1992 George H. W. Bush*
(1924–2018)[87]		 115px Republican   President TX 37.5% 31.2% Dan Quayle
1996 Bob Dole
(born 1923)[88]		 Bob Dole Republican   Fmr. Senator KS 40.7% 29.6% Jack Kemp
2000 Al Gore
(born 1948)[89]		 115px Democratic   Vice President TN 48.4%† 49.4% Joe Lieberman
2004 John Kerry
(born 1943)[90]		 115px Democratic   Senator MA 48.3% 46.7% John Edwards
2008 John McCain
(1936–2018)[91]		 115px Republican   Senator AZ 45.6% 32.2% Sarah Palin
2012 Mitt Romney
(born 1947)[92]		 115px Republican   Fmr. Governor MA 47.2% 38.3% Paul Ryan
2016 Hillary Clinton
(born 1947)[93]		 Hillary Clinton Democratic   Fmr. Secretary of State NY 48.0%† 42.2% Tim Kaine
2020 Donald Trump*
(born 1946)[94]		 Donald Trump Republican   President FL 46.8% 43.1% Mike Pence

List of unsuccessful major third-party and independent candidates

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Further information: List of United States major third party and independent presidential tickets

These third-party and independent candidates won at least ten percent of the electoral vote[10] or at least ten percent of the popular vote.[95]

  • * indicates that the candidate served as the President of the United States at some point in their career
  • † indicates that the candidate finished with the second highest share of the popular vote
  • ‡ indicates that the candidate finished with the second highest share of the electoral vote
  • PV% indicates the share of the popular vote won by that candidate
  • EV% indicates the share of the electoral vote won by that candidate
      Free Soil           American           Southern Democratic           Constitutional Union
           Progressive (1912)           Progressive (1924)           American Independent           Independent
Election Candidate[2][10] Vote[2][10] Running mate
Candidate
(Birth–death)		 Party Office at time
of election[lower-alpha 6]		 Home
state[lower-alpha 7]		 PV% EV%
1848 Martin Van Buren*
(1782–1862)[30]		 115px Free Soil   Fmr. President NY 10.1% 0% Charles F. Adams Sr.
1856 Millard Fillmore*
(1800–1874)[96]		 115px American[lower-alpha 20]   Fmr. President NY 21.5% 2.7% Andrew J. Donelson
1860 John C. Breckinridge
(1821–1875)[97]		 115px Southern Democratic[lower-alpha 21]   Vice President KY 18.2% 23.8%‡ Joseph Lane
1860 John Bell
(1796–1869)[98]		 115px Constitutional Union   Fmr. Senator TN 12.6% 12.9% Edward Everett
1912[lower-alpha 27] Theodore Roosevelt*
(1858–1919)[99]		 115px Progressive[lower-alpha 31]   Fmr. President NY 27.4%† 16.6%‡ Hiram Johnson
1924 Robert La Follette
(1855–1925)[101]		 115px Progressive[lower-alpha 31]   Senator WI 16.6% 2.4% Burton K. Wheeler
1968 George Wallace
(1919–1998)[102]		 115px American Independent   Fmr. Governor AL 13.5% 8.6% Curtis LeMay
1992 Ross Perot
(1930–2019)[103]		 115px Independent   None[lower-alpha 32] TX 18.9% 0% James Stockdale

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ There have been 59 unsuccessful major party candidacies by 52 individuals in 56 of the 59 presidential elections. This figure does not include individuals who were affiliated with a major party but were not the primary nominee of that party and only competed in a small fraction of the states that participated in the election.
  2. ↑ Though Washington did not receive serious opposition in the 1792 election, the nascent Democratic-Republican Party attempted to defeat Vice President John Adams's bid for re-election. The Democratic-Republican candidate, George Clinton, finished with 50 electoral votes, but Adams won re-election with 77 electoral votes.[3]
  3. ↑ The Federalist Party did not nominate a presidential candidate and essentially conceded the 1820 presidential election before it was held. Monroe did not face any opposition in the election, although one presidential elector, William Plumer, cast his vote for John Quincy Adams.[6]
  4. ↑ Additionally, George Clinton, Aaron Burr, and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney each received electoral votes for president in three elections that they did not win. However, each of those candidates was their party's actual or de facto vice presidential nominee in at least one of those elections.[9]
  5. ↑ Other third parties, such as the Populist Party, have nominated individuals who had previously been nominated for president by a major party.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 The most recent elective office, or senior appointive position, held by the candidate when the presidential election was held.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 State of primary residence at the time of the election.
  8. ↑ This column reflects the share of the total presidential electoral vote won by the losing candidate. Prior to the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, each member of the Electoral College cast two votes, with no distinction made between electoral votes for president and electoral votes for vice president.[12] For the elections of 1796 and 1800, the number in this column reflects the share of presidential electors who cast one of their two votes for Jefferson (in 1796) or Adams (in 1800).
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Prior to the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, each member of the Electoral College cast two votes, with no distinction made between votes for president and votes for vice president.[10] The Democratic-Republicans may or may not have officially nominated Jefferson for president through a congressional nominating caucus, but Jefferson was widely regarded as the party's main presidential candidate in the 1796 election. The Democratic-Republicans did not select an official vice presidential candidate. Aaron Burr finished with the second-most electoral votes among individuals affiliated with the party.[13] Because Jefferson won more electoral votes than the second Federalist candidate, Thomas Pinckney, he was elected as vice president.[10]
  10. ↑ Prior to the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, each member of the Electoral College cast two votes, with no distinction made between votes for president and votes for vice president.[10] Thomas Jefferson and the other main Democratic-Republican candidate, Aaron Burr, each won the votes of 73 presidential electors, more than either of the Federalist candidates. Because Jefferson and Burr tied in the electoral vote, the election was decided by a contingent election held in the House of Representatives; Jefferson was elected president and Burr became vice president.[10]
  11. ↑ Prior to the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, each member of the Electoral College cast two votes, with no distinction made between votes for president and votes for vice president.[10] The Federalist congressional nominating caucus nominated a ticket of Adams and Charles C. Pinckney. Though the party did not officially nominate either candidate for president or vice president, most Federalists favored Adams for president and Pinckney for vice president.[16] Adams won 65 electoral votes and Pinckney won 64 electoral votes.[10]
  12. ↑ Clinton was a Northern Democratic-Republican who challenged the incumbent Democratic-Republican president, James Madison, in the general election.[5] Clinton was nominated for president by a legislative caucus of New York Democratic-Republicans, and much of his support came from Democratic-Republicans dissatisfied with Madison's leadership in the War of 1812. The Federalist Party did not officially nominate Clinton, but most Federalist leaders tacitly supported Clinton's candidacy in hopes of defeating Madison.[19]
  13. ↑ In 1812, Clinton simultaneously held the positions of Mayor of New York City and Lieutenant Governor of New York. He had also previously served in the United States Senate.
  14. ↑ The Federalists did not nominate a ticket in 1816, though some Federalists were elected to serve as presidential electors. A majority of the Federalist electors cast their presidential vote for King and their vice presidential vote for Howard.[20]
  15. ↑ The Democratic-Republican Party was unable to unite behind a single candidate in 1824.[7] Four Democratic-Republicans received electoral votes in the general election, and, as no candidate won a majority of the electoral vote, the election was decided in a contingent election held in the House of Representatives. John Quincy Adams won that contingent election.[10]
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 In the election 1824, no presidential candidate won a majority of the electoral vote for president, but John C. Calhoun won a majority of the electoral vote for vice president, and thus was elected vice president. Most presidential electors who voted for either Adams or Jackson for president voted for Calhoun for vice president. Similarly, most electors who cast their presidential vote for Clay cast their vice presidential vote for Nathaniel Macon, and most electors who cast their presidential vote for Crawford cast their vice presidential vote for Sanford.[10]
  17. ↑ The Whigs did not unite around a single candidate in 1836, but the party ran only one presidential candidate per state.[8] 25 states held a popular vote in the 1836 election; Harrison was the Whig candidate in fifteen states, most of which were in the North, White was the Whig candidate in nine states, all of which were in the South, and Daniel Webster was the Whig candidate in Massachusetts. Harrison and White each received electoral votes from multiple states, while Webster and Willie Person Mangum each received electoral votes from a single state (Massachusetts and South Carolina, respectively). In total, the Whigs won 49.1 percent of the popular vote and 41.8 percent of the electoral vote.[10]
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 The Whigs did not select an official vice presidential nominee, and, as in the presidential race, two vice presidential contenders emerged. In most Northern states, the Whigs fielded a ticket of Harrison and Granger, and in most Southern states, the Whigs fielded a ticket of White and Tyler.[27] Granger, Tyler, and two Democrats, Richard Mentor Johnson and William Smith, each won a share of the electoral vote.[10] Because no one candidate won a majority of the electoral vote for vice president, the Senate held a contingent election to select the vice president. In the only contingent election that the Senate has ever held, Johnson defeated Granger.[28]
  19. ↑ The 1840 Democratic National Convention denied renomination to Vice President Richard Mentor Johnson, and the Democrats failed to officially nominate a vice presidential candidate in 1840.[31] Nonetheless, 48 of the 60 presidential electors who cast their presidential vote for Van Buren cast their vice presidential vote for Johnson. Most of the remaining Van Buren electors cast their vice presidential vote for Littleton Waller Tazewell.[32]
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 After the collapse of the Whig Party in the mid-1850s, the Republican Party and the American Party (the political organization of the Know Nothing movement) emerged as the major challengers to the Democratic Party. By 1856, neither the Republican Party nor the American Party had truly supplanted the Whig Party as the second major political party in the United States.[36] Nonetheless, the American Party is frequently described as a third party.[37][38][39] In 1856, the American Party, along with a rump convention of Whigs, nominated a presidential ticket led by former President Millard Fillmore.[40] After the 1856 election, the Republican Party firmly established itself as one of the two major parties alongside the Democratic Party, while the American Party collapsed.[41]
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 The Democratic Party fractured along sectional lines in 1860 and held multiple national conventions. The Northern Democrats nominated Douglas and the Southern Democrats nominated Vice President John C. Breckinridge.[44][45] Many sources include Breckinridge as a third party candidate,[46][10][47] but other sources do not.[48][2]
  22. ↑ Greeley and Benjamin Gratz Brown were nominated by the Liberal Republican Party, a splinter group of Republicans. The ticket of Greeley and Brown was later nominated by the 1872 Democratic National Convention, as the Democrats hoped to defeat President Ulysses S. Grant's re-election bid by uniting with the Liberal Republicans.[11][52]
  23. ↑ Greeley had served in the House of Representatives from December 1848 to March 1849. He was primarily known for his role as editor of the New-York Tribune.[53]
  24. ↑ Greeley died after election day but before the Electoral College cast its votes, and thus did not receive any electoral votes.[2] Greeley would have won 66 electoral votes (18.8% of the 352 electoral votes available) had he been alive when the Electoral College cast its votes.[54] Most of the electoral votes that he would have received had he lived instead went to Democrat Thomas A. Hendricks.[2]
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 In 1896, after Bryan won the Democratic presidential nomination, he was also nominated by the Populist Party, a major third party. The Populist vice presidential nominee was Thomas E. Watson.[61] Bryan's running mate on the Democratic ticket, Arthur Sewall, won 149 electoral votes for vice president, while Watson won 27 electoral votes for vice president.[10]
  26. ↑ Parker was the Chief Judge of the New York Court of Appeals, the highest court in New York.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 After Taft defeated Theodore Roosevelt for the presidential nomination at the 1912 Republican National Convention, supporters of Roosevelt established the Progressive Party, a third party dedicated to progressive ideals.[63][64][65] In the 1912 election, Democratic nominee Woodrow Wilson won a plurality of the popular vote and a majority of the electoral vote. Roosevelt won the second highest share of electoral votes and popular votes, while Taft finished in third place in both categories.[10] Roosevelt is the only third-party candidate ever to win the second-most popular votes in a presidential election.[66]
  28. ↑ Sherman died on October 30, 1912, and Taft did not name another running mate before the 1912 election was held. After the election, the Republican National Committee designated Nicholas Murray Butler as Taft's running mate for the purposes of the electoral vote, and Butler received eight electoral votes.[68]
  29. ↑ Willkie was an attorney who had served as the president of the Commonwealth & Southern Corporation in the 1930s.
  30. ↑ The 1972 Democratic National Convention selected Thomas Eagleton as the party's vice presidential nominee, but Eagleton dropped out of the race after it was publicly disclosed that he had undergone electroconvulsive therapy in order to treat depression. Shriver replaced Eagleton on the Democratic ticket.[82]
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Though the Progressive Party of 1912 and the Progressive Party of 1924 shared names and an association with the progressive movement, they were two distinct political parties.[100]
  32. ↑ Perot was a businessman who was primarily known as the founder of Electronic Data Systems.[104]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  3. ↑ Thompson (1980), pp. 174–175
  4. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Morgan (1969), pp. 191–193
  6. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Morgan (1969), p. 195
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Deskins et al. (2010), pp. 106–107
  9. ↑ Southwick (1998), pp. 12, 21, 26
  10. ↑ 10.00 10.01 10.02 10.03 10.04 10.05 10.06 10.07 10.08 10.09 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 10.15 10.16 10.17 10.18 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Hale (1950), p. 338
  12. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  13. ↑ Morgan (1969), pp. 185–186
  14. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  15. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  16. ↑ Morgan (1969), p. 186
  17. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  18. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  19. ↑ Siry (1985), pp. 457–460
  20. ↑ Deskins et al. (2010), pp. 65
  21. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  22. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  23. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  25. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  26. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  27. ↑ Peterson (1989), pp. 19–20
  28. ↑ Deskins et al. (2010), pp. 108–109
  29. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  31. ↑ Sirgiovanni (1994), pp. 767–768
  32. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  33. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  34. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  35. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  36. ↑ McPherson (1988), pp. 140–144, 153–154
  37. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  38. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  39. ↑ Hicks (1933), p. 10
  40. ↑ Holt (2010), pp. 91–94
  41. ↑ Gienapp (1985), p. 547
  42. ↑ Gienapp (1987), p. 323
  43. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  44. ↑ Smith (1975), pp. 106–113
  45. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  46. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  47. ↑ Rosenstone et al. (2018), pp. 59–63
  48. ↑ Hicks (1933), pp. 3–28
  49. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  50. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  51. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  52. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  53. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  54. ↑ Seitz (1926), p. 391
  55. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  56. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  57. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  58. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  59. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  61. ↑ Kazin (2006), pp. 63–65
  62. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  63. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  64. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  65. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  66. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  67. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  68. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  69. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  70. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  71. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  72. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  73. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  74. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  75. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  76. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  77. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  78. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  79. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  80. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  81. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  82. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  83. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  84. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  85. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  86. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  87. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  88. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  89. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  90. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  91. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  92. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  93. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  94. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  95. ↑ Rosenstone et al. (2018), Appendix A
  96. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  97. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  98. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  99. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  100. ↑ Rosenstone et al. (2018), p. 93
  101. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  102. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  103. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  104. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.

Works cited

  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.

Further reading

  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.

External links

  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
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