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Naringenin is a flavanone, a type of flavonoid. It is the predominant flavanone in grapefruit.[2]
Sources and bioavailability
Naringenin can be found in grapefruit, oranges, and tomatoes (skin).[3]
This bioflavonoid is difficult to absorb on oral ingestion. In the best-case scenario, only 15% of ingested naringenin will get absorbed in the human gastrointestinal tract.[citation needed]
The naringenin-7-glucoside form seems less bioavailable than the aglycol form.[4]
Grapefruit juice can provide much higher plasma concentrations of naringenin than orange juice.[5] Also found in grapefruit is the related compound kaempferol, which has a hydroxyl group next to the ketone group.
Naringenin can be absorbed from cooked tomato paste.[6]
Potential biological effects
Naringenin has been shown to have an inhibitory effect on the human cytochrome P450 isoform CYP1A2, which can change pharmacokinetics in a human (or orthologous) host of several popular drugs in an adverse manner, even resulting in carcinogens of otherwise harmless substances.[7] The National Research Institute of Chinese Medicine in Taiwan conducted experiments on the effects of the grapefruit flavanones naringin and naringenin on CYP450 enzyme expression. Naringenin proved to be a potent inhibitor of the benzo(a)pyrene metabolizing enzyme benzo(a)pyrene hydroxylase (AHH) in experiments in mice.[8]
Naringenin has also been shown to reduce oxidative damage to DNA in vitro and in animal studies.[9]
Naringenin has also been shown to reduce hepatitis C virus production by infected hepatocytes (liver cells) in cell culture. This seems to be secondary to naringenin's ability to inhibit the secretion of very-low-density lipoprotein by the cells.[10] The antiviral effects of naringenin are currently under clinical investigation.[11]
Naringenin seems to protect LDLR-deficient mice from the obesity effects of a high-fat diet.[12]
Naringenin lowers the plasma and hepatic cholesterol concentrations by suppressing HMG-CoA reductase and ACAT in rats fed a high-cholesterol diet.[13]
It also produces BDNF-dependent antidepressant-like effects in mice.[14]
Like many other flavonoids, naringenin has been found to possess weak activity at the opioid receptors.[15] It specifically acts as a non-selective antagonist of all three opioid receptors, albeit with weak affinity.[15]
Metabolism
The enzyme naringenin 8-dimethylallyltransferase uses dimethylallyl diphosphate and (−)-(2S)-naringenin to produce diphosphate and 8-prenylnaringenin.
Biodegradation
Cunninghamella elegans, a fungal model organism of the mammalian metabolism, can be used to study the naringenin sulfation.[16]
References
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- ↑ A Pilot Study of the Grapefruit Flavonoid Naringenin for HCV Infection
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- ↑ 15.0 15.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
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Receptor
(ligands) |
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Agonists
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- (R)-DPN
- (S)-DPN
- (R,R)-THC
- (S,S)-THC
- 2,8-DHHHC
- 3α-Androstanediol
- 3β-Androstanediol
- 3α-Hydroxytibolone
- 3β-Hydroxytibolone
- 7-Oxo-DHEA
- 7α-Hydroxy-DHEA
- 7β-Hydroxyepiandrosterone
- 8β-VE2
- 16α-Hydroxy-DHEA
- 16α-Hydroxyestrone
- 16α-IE2
- 16α-LE2 (Cpd1471)
- Δ4-Androstenedione
- Δ5-Androstenediol
- 17α-Estradiol (alfatradiol)
- 17β-Estradiol (estradiol)
- Alestramustine
- Almestrone
- Anabolic steroids (prodrugs; e.g., testosterone, metandienone (methandrostenolone), others)
- Anethole
- Anol
- Atrimustine
- Benzestrol
- Bifluranol
- Bisdehydrodoisynolic acid
- Cadmium
- Carbestrol
- Chalconoids (e.g., isoliquiritigenin, phloretin, phlorizin (phloridzin), wedelolactone)
- Cloxestradiol
- Conjugated equine estrogens (e.g., sodium equilin sulfate, sodium equilenin sulfate)
- Coumestans (e.g., coumestrol, psoralidin)
- DHEA
- DHEA-S
- Deoxymiroestrol
- Dianethole
- Dianol
- Diarylpropionitrile
- Dieldrin
- Dienestrol
- Dienestrol acetate
- Diethylstilbestrol
- Diethylstilbestrol dipropionate
- Diosgenin
- Doisynoestrol (fenocycline)
- Doisynolic acid
- DY-131 (GSK-9089)
- Endosulfan
- Epiestriol
- Epimestrol
- ERB-196 (WAY-202196)
- Esterified estrogens (e.g., estrone sulfate, equilin sulfate, equilenin sulfate)
- Estetrol
- Estradiol benzoate
- Estradiol butyrylacetate
- Estradiol cypionate
- Estradiol dienanthate
- Estradiol dipropionate
- Estradiol diundecylate
- Estradiol diundecylenate
- Estradiol enanthate
- Estradiol furoate
- Estradiol hemihydrate
- Estradiol hemisuccinate
- Estradiol hexahydrobenzoate
- Estradiol monopropionate
- Estradiol palmitate
- Estradiol pivalate
- Estradiol propoxyphenylpropionate
- Estradiol stearate
- Estradiol succinate
- Estradiol undecylate
- Estradiol valerate
- Estramustine
- Estramustine phosphate
- Estrapronicate
- Estrazinol
- Estriol
- Estriol succinate
- Estriol tripropionate
- Estrobin (DBE)
- Estrofurate
- Estromustine
- Estrone
- Estrone acetate
- Estrone cyanate
- Estrone sulfate
- Estrone tetraacetylglucoside
- Estropipate
- Estropronicate
- Etamestrol (eptamestrol)
- Ethinyl estradiol
- Ethinyl estradiol 3-isopropylsulfonate
- Etynodiol diacetate
- Fenarimol
- Fenestrel
- FERb 033
- Flavonoids (incl. 7,8-DHF, 8-prenylnaringenin, apigenin, baicalein, baicalin, calycosin, catechin, daidzein, daidzin, ECG, EGCG, epicatechin, equol, formononetin, glabrene, glabridin, genistein, genistin, glycitein, kaempferol, liquiritigenin, mirificin, myricetin, naringenin, pinocembrin, prunetin, puerarin, quercetin, tectoridin, tectorigenin)
- Fosfestrol
- Furostilbestrol
- GSK-4716
- Hexestrol
- Hexestrol diacetate
- Hexestrol dicaprylate
- Hexestrol diphosphate
- Hexestrol dipropionate
- Hydroxyestrone diacetate
- Lavender oil
- Lignans (e.g., enterodiol, enterolactone)
- Mestranol
- Metalloestrogens (e.g., cadmium)
- Methallenestril
- Methestrol
- Methestrol dipropionate
- Methiocarb
- Methylestradiol
- Miroestrol
- Moxestrol
- Nilestriol
- Noretynodrel
- Orestrate
- Paroxypropione
- Phytosterols (e.g., β-sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol)
- Polyestradiol phosphate
- Prinaberel (ERB-041, WAY-202041)
- Propylpyrazoletriol
- Promestriene
- Resorcylic acid lactones (e.g., zearalanone, zearalenol, zearalenone, zeranal (zearalanol))
- Quadrosilan
- Quinestradol
- Quinestrol
- SKF-82,958
- Stilbenoids (e.g., resveratrol)
- Synthetic xenoestrogens (e.g., alkylphenols, bisphenols (e.g., BPA, BPF, BPS), DDT, parabens, PBBs, PHBA, phthalates, PCBs)
- WAY-166818
- WAY-200070
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Antagonists
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Enzyme |
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Others |
Precursors
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Indirect
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- Antigonadotropins (e.g., androgens, estrogens, progestogens, prolactin)
- Calcitriol (vitamin D)
- GnRH agonists (e,g, GnRH, leuprorelin)
- GnRH antagonists (e.g., cetrorelix)
- Gonadotropins (e.g., FSH, hCG, LH)
- Kisspeptin
- Plasma proteins (ABP, albumin, SHBG)
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Receptor
(ligands) |
MOR |
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DOR |
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KOR |
- Agonists: 6'-GNTI
- 8-CAC
- 18-MC
- 14-Methoxymetopon
- β-Chlornaltrexamine
- β-Funaltrexamine
- Adrenorphin (metorphamide)
- Akuuamicine
- Alazocine
- Allomatrine
- Asimadoline
- BAM-12P
- BAM-18P
- BAM-22P
- Big dynorphin
- Bremazocine
- BRL-52537
- Butorphan
- Butorphanol
- BW-373U86
- Cebranopadol
- Ciprefadol
- CR665
- Cyclazocine
- Cyclorphan
- Cyprenorphine
- Diamorphine (heroin)
- Diacetylnalorphine
- Difelikefalin
- Dihydroetorphine
- Dihydromorphine
- Diprenorphine
- Dynorphin A
- Dynorphin B (rimorphin)
- Eluxadoline
- Enadoline
- Eptazocine
- Erinacine E
- Ethylketazocine
- Etorphine
- Fedotozine
- Fentanyl
- Gemazocine
- GR-89696
- GR-103545
- Hemorphin-4
- Herkinorin
- HS665
- Hydromorphone
- HZ-2
- Ibogaine
- ICI-199,441
- ICI-204,448
- Ketamine
- Ketazocine
- Laudanosine
- Leumorphin (dynorphin B-29)
- Levallorphan
- Levomethorphan
- Levorphanol
- Lexanopadol
- Lofentanil
- LPK-26
- Lufuradom
- Matrine
- MB-1C-OH
- Menthol
- Metazocine
- Metkefamide
- Mianserin
- Mirtazapine
- Morphine
- Moxazocine
- MR-2034
- N-MPPP
- Nalbuphine
- Nalbuphine sebacate
- NalBzOH
- Nalfurafine
- Nalmefene
- Nalodeine (N-allylnorcodeine)
- Nalorphine
- Naltriben
- Niravoline
- Norbuprenorphine
- Norbuprenorphine-3-glucuronide
- Noribogaine
- Norketamine
- O-Desmethyltramadol
- Oripavine
- Oxilorphan
- Oxycodone
- Pentazocine
- Pethidine (meperidine)
- Phenazocine
- Proxorphan
- Racemethorphan
- Racemorphan
- RB-64
- Salvinorin A (salvia)
- Salvinorin B ethoxymethyl ether
- Salvinorin B methoxymethyl ether
- Samidorphan
- SKF-10047
- Spiradoline (U-62,066)
- TH-030418
- Thienorphine
- Tifluadom
- Tricyclic antidepressants (e.g., amitriptyline, desipramine, imipramine, nortriptyline)
- U-50,488
- U-54,494A
- U-69,593
- Xorphanol
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NOP |
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Unsorted /
unknown |
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Enzyme
(inhibitors) |
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Others |
- Others: Kyotorphin (met-enkephalin releaser/degradation stabilizer)
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Receptor
(ligands) |
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Enzyme |
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Others |
Precursors/prohormones
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Indirect
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- Antigonadotropins (e.g., estrogens, progestogens, prolactin)
- GnRH agonists (e,g, GnRH, leuprorelin)
- GnRH antagonists (e.g., cetrorelix)
- Gonadotropins (e.g., FSH, hCG, LH)
- Kisspeptin
- Plasma proteins (ABP, albumin, SHBG)
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