Operation Whetstone

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Operation Whetstone
Whetstone Sulky 001.jpg
Rubble mound formed by the Sulky shot.
Information
Country United States
Test site NTS Area 15; NTS Area 16, Shoshone Mountain; NTS Area 18, Buckboard Mesa; NTS Area 19, 20, Pahute Mesa; NTS Areas 5, 11, Frenchman Flat; NTS, Areas 1-4, 6-10, Yucca Flat; Salmon Site, near Lumberton, Mississippi
Period 1964-1965
Number of tests 46
Test type cratering, underground shaft, underground tunnel
Max. yield 51 kilotonnes of TNT (210 TJ)
Navigation
Previous test series Operation Niblick
Next test series Operation Flintlock (nuclear test)

The United States's Whetstone nuclear test series[1] was a group of 46 nuclear tests conducted in 1964-1965. These tests [note 1] followed the Operation Niblick series and preceded the Operation Flintlock (nuclear test) series.

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United States' Whetstone series tests and detonations
Name [note 2] Date time (UT) Local time zone [note 3][2] Location [note 4] Elevation + height [note 5] Delivery [note 6]
Purpose [note 7]
Device [note 8] Yield [note 9] Fallout [note 10] References Notes
Bye 16 July 1964 13:15:00.15 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U10i Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,295 m (4,249 ft) - 389.26 m (1,277.1 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
20 kt Venting detected, less than 390 Ci (14,000 GBq) [1][3][4][5][6][7]
Links 23 July 1964 13:30:00.15 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U9bf Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,273 m (4,177 ft) - 119.8 m (393 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
less than 20 kt Venting detected on site, less than 7 Ci (260 GBq) [1][3][4][6][7]
Trogon 24 July 1964 18:30:00.04 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U3dj Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,204 m (3,950 ft) - 193.03 m (633.3 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
less than 20 kt [1][6][7]
Alva 19 August 1964 16:00:00.14 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U2j Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,320 m (4,330 ft) - 166.04 m (544.8 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
4.4 kt Venting detected off site, 6.4 kCi (240 TBq) [1][3][4][5][6][7]
Canvasback 22 August 1964 22:17:00.06 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U3cp Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,226 m (4,022 ft) - 447.66 m (1,468.7 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
18 kt Venting detected, 2 kCi (74 TBq) [1][3][4][6][7][8]
Player 27 August 1964 14:30:00.15 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U9cc Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,254 m (4,114 ft) - 91.44 m (300.0 ft) underground shaft,
safety experiment
less than 20 kt [1][6][7]
Haddock 28 August 1964 17:06:00.04 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U3dl Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,222 m (4,009 ft) - 363.66 m (1,193.1 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
less than 20 kt [1][6][7]
Guanay 4 September 1964 18:15:00.08 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U3di Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,184 m (3,885 ft) - 260.97 m (856.2 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
12 kt [1][5][6][7][8]
Spoon 11 September 1964 14:00:00.1 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U9bd Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,289 m (4,229 ft) - 179.68 m (589.5 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
200 t Venting detected, 390 Ci (14,000 GBq) [1][4][6][7][8]
Auk 2 October 1964 20:03:00.04 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U7b Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,254 m (4,114 ft) - 452.38 m (1,484.2 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
12 kt [1][6][7][9]
Par 9 October 1964 14:00:00.12 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U2p Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,304 m (4,278 ft) - 403.86 m (1,325.0 ft) underground shaft,
peaceful research
38 kt Venting detected, 610 Ci (23,000 GBq) [1][3][4][5][6][7] A Plowshare device with high neutron flux for creation of heavy isotopes.
Barbel - 1 (with Turnstone) 16 October 1964 15:59:30.038 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U3bx Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,194 m (3,917 ft) - 258.9 m (849 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
7 kt Venting detected, 290 Ci (11,000 GBq) [1][3][4][5][6][7] simultaneous, separate holes.
Turnstone - 2 (with Barbel) 16 October 1964 15:59:30.03 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U3dt Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,191 m (3,907 ft) + underground shaft,
weapons development
less than 20 kt [1][6][7] simultaneous, separate holes.
Salmon 22 October 1964 16:00:00.0 CST (-6 hrs)
Salmon Site, near Lumberton, Mississippi Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 74 m (243 ft) - 830 m (2,720 ft) underground shaft,
joint verification
5.3 kt [1][7] Project Vela Uniform/Dribble, detection of underground tests. Exploded in Tatum salt dome.
Garden 23 October 1964 15:00:00.94 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U9aj Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,274 m (4,180 ft) - 149.66 m (491.0 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
less than 20 kt [1][6][7]
Forest 31 October 1964 17:04:58.61 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U7a Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,270 m (4,170 ft) - 380.73 m (1,249.1 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
less than 20 kt Venting detected, 5 Ci (180 GBq) [1][3][4][6][7]
Handcar 5 November 1964 15:00:00.11 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U10b Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,307 m (4,288 ft) - 402.95 m (1,322.0 ft) underground shaft,
peaceful research
12 kt Venting detected on site, 70 Ci (2,600 GBq) [1][3][4][6][7] A Plowshare project for measuring effects of contained explosion on carbonate rock.
Crepe 5 December 1964 21:15:00.1 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U2q Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,252 m (4,108 ft) - 404.2 m (1,326 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
20 kt Venting detected, 250 Ci (9,200 GBq) [1][3][4][5][6][7]
Drill (Source-Lower) - 1 5 December 1964 21:15:00.16 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U2ai Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,280 m (4,200 ft) - 219.46 m (720.0 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
3.4 kt Venting detected off site, 61 kCi (2,300 TBq) [1][3][4][6][7] simultaneous, same hole.
Drill (Target-Upper) - 2 5 December 1964 21:15:00.16 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U2ai Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,280 m (4,200 ft) + underground shaft,
weapons development
less than 20 kt Venting detected off site [1][3][6][7] simultaneous, same hole.
Cassowary - 1 (with Hoopoe) 16 December 1964 20:00:00.07 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U3bn Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,194 m (3,917 ft) - 150.14 m (492.6 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
less than 20 kt [1][6][7] simultaneous, different holes.
Hoopoe - 2 (with Cassowary) 16 December 1964 20:00:00.07 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U3cf Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,200 m (3,900 ft) + underground shaft,
safety experiment
less than 20 kt [1][6][7] simultaneous, different holes.
Parrot 16 December 1964 20:00:00.04 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U3dk Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,192 m (3,911 ft) - 180.32 m (591.6 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
1.3 kt Venting detected off site, 230 kCi (8,500 TBq) [1][3][4][5][6][7]
Mudpack 16 December 1964 20:10:00.1 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U10n Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,310 m (4,300 ft) - 151.79 m (498.0 ft) underground shaft,
weapon effect
2.7 kt Venting detected, less than 54 Ci (2,000 GBq) [1][3][4][5][6][7]
Sulky 18 December 1964 19:35:00.09 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U18d Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,597 m (5,240 ft) - 27.28 m (89.5 ft) underground shaft,
peaceful research
92 t Venting detected off site, 130 kCi (4,800 TBq) [1][3][4][5][6][7][10][11] A Plowshare project for hard, dry excavation test, to study dispersion of radionuclides.
Wool 14 January 1965 16:00:00.14 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U9bh Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,287 m (4,222 ft) - 215.13 m (705.8 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
7 kt Venting detected, 200 Ci (7,400 GBq) [1][3][4][5][6][7]
Tern 29 January 1965 18:22:00.03 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U3dw Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,202 m (3,944 ft) - 210.65 m (691.1 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
500 t Venting detected on site, 170 Ci (6,300 GBq) [1][3][4][6][7][8]
Cashmere 4 February 1965 15:30:00.11 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U2ad Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,270 m (4,170 ft) - 232.18 m (761.7 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
4 kt Venting detected, 8 Ci (300 GBq) [1][3][4][5][6][7]
Alpaca 12 February 1965 15:10:29.49 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U2a Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,315 m (4,314 ft) - 224.61 m (736.9 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
330 t Venting detected off site, 40 kCi (1,500 TBq) [1][3][4][6][7]
Merlin 16 February 1965 17:30:00.04 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U3ct Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,203 m (3,947 ft) - 296.14 m (971.6 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
10.1 kt I-131 venting detected, 0 [1][3][4][5][6][7]
Wishbone 18 February 1965 16:18:47.15 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U5a Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 913 m (2,995 ft) - 179.22 m (588.0 ft) underground shaft,
weapon effect
5 kt Venting detected on site, 6.9 kCi (260 TBq) [1][3][4][5][6][7]
Seersucker 19 February 1965 15:28:54.11 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U9bm Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,274 m (4,180 ft) - 142.34 m (467.0 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
less than 20 kt Venting detected on site, less than 410 Ci (15,000 GBq) [1][3][4][6][7]
Wagtail 3 March 1965 19:13:00.03 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U3an Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,210 m (3,970 ft) - 749.59 m (2,459.3 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
51 kt Venting detected, 13 Ci (480 GBq) [1][3][4][6][7][9]
Suede 20 March 1965 15:30:49.1 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U9bk Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,286 m (4,219 ft) - 143.52 m (470.9 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
200 t Venting detected, 1.3 kCi (48 TBq) [1][4][6][7][8]
Cup 26 March 1965 15:34:08.16 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U9cb Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,267 m (4,157 ft) - 536.75 m (1,761.0 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
38 kt Venting detected, 4.7 kCi (170 TBq) [1][3][4][5][6][7]
Kestrel 5 April 1965 21:00:00.04 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U3dd Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,187 m (3,894 ft) - 446.87 m (1,466.1 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
7 kt Venting detected, 230 Ci (8,500 GBq) [1][3][4][5][6][7]
Palanquin 14 April 1965 13:14:00.1 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U20k Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,861 m (6,106 ft) - 85.34 m (280.0 ft) cratering,
peaceful research
4.3 kt Venting detected off site, 11 MCi (410 PBq) [1][3][4][5][6][7][10] A Plowshare project for hard, dry excavation test, to study dispersion of radionuclides.
Gum Drop 21 April 1965 22:00:00.03 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U16a.02 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,931 m (6,335 ft) - 304.8 m (1,000 ft) underground tunnel,
weapon effect
20 kt Venting detected, 1.9 kCi (70 TBq) [1][3][4][6][7][8]
Chenille 22 April 1965 13:39:00.1 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U9bg Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,276 m (4,186 ft) - 140.74 m (461.7 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
1 kt Venting detected on site, less than 110 Ci (4,100 GBq) [1][3][4][6][7][8]
Muscovy 23 April 1965 21:44:00.04 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U3dx Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,189 m (3,901 ft) - 180.29 m (591.5 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
600 t [1][6][7][8]
Tee 7 May 1965 15:47:11.15 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U2ab Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,283 m (4,209 ft) - 190.2 m (624 ft) underground shaft,
weapon effect
7 kt Venting detected off site, 1.6 kCi (59 TBq) [1][3][4][5][6][7]
Buteo 12 May 1965 18:15:00.1 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U20a Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,960 m (6,430 ft) - 695.55 m (2,282.0 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
less than 20 kt [1][6][7]
Cambric 14 May 1965 14:57:52.15 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U5e Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 929 m (3,048 ft) - 294.28 m (965.5 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
750 t [1][6][7] Cambric and Cheshire (on Pahute Mesa) to study radioactivity movement in ground water. In 16 years 4 billion gallons (30 billion liters) were pumped, took 2 yrs for the tritium to move 300 ft (91 m). Sr-40 and Cs-137 never detected.
Scaup 14 May 1965 17:32:36.23 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U3da(s) Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,222 m (4,009 ft) - 427.02 m (1,401.0 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
12 kt [1][5][6][7]
Tweed 21 May 1965 13:08:52.11 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U9bn Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,281 m (4,203 ft) - 281.07 m (922.1 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
15 kt Venting detected, 600 Ci (22,000 GBq) [1][3][4][5][6][7]
Petrel 11 June 1965 19:45:00.04 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U3dy Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,197 m (3,927 ft) - 180.75 m (593.0 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
1.3 kt [1][5][6][7]
Organdy 11 June 1965 20:28:37.11 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U9bo Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,294 m (4,245 ft) - 169.47 m (556.0 ft) underground shaft,
weapons development
500 t Venting detected, 130 Ci (4,800 GBq) [1][4][6][7][8]
Diluted Waters 16 June 1965 16:30:00.15 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U5b Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 916 m (3,005 ft) - 190.5 m (625 ft) underground shaft,
weapon effect
4 kt Venting detected off site, 30 kCi (1,100 TBq) [1][3][4][5][6][7]
Tiny Tot 17 June 1965 17:00:00.09 PST (-8 hrs)
NTS Area U15e Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 1,533 m (5,030 ft) - 110.95 m (364.0 ft) underground tunnel,
weapon effect
less than 20 kt Venting detected on site, 7 Ci (260 GBq) [1][3][4][6][7]
  1. A bomb test may be a salvo test, defined as two or more explosions "where a period of time between successive individual explosions does not exceed 5 seconds and where the burial points of all explosive devices can be connected by segments of straight lines, each of them connecting two burial points and does not exceed 40 kilometers in length". Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  2. The US, France and Great Britain have code-named their test events, while the USSR and China did not, and therefore have only test numbers (with some exceptions – Soviet peaceful explosions were named). Word translations into English in parentheses unless the name is a proper noun. A dash followed by a number indicates a member of a salvo event. The US also sometimes named the individual explosions in such a salvo test, which results in "name1 – 1(with name2)". If test is canceled or aborted, then the row data like date and location discloses the intended plans, where known.
  3. To convert the UT time into standard local, add the number of hours in parentheses to the UT time; for local daylight saving time, add one additional hour. If the result is earlier than 00:00, add 24 hours and subtract 1 from the day; if it is 24:00 or later, subtract 24 hours and add 1 to the day. All historical timezone data are derived from here:
  4. Rough place name and a latitude/longitude reference; for rocket-carried tests, the launch location is specified before the detonation location, if known. Some locations are extremely accurate; others (like airdrops and space blasts) may be quite inaccurate. "~" indicates a likely pro-forma rough location, shared with other tests in that same area.
  5. Elevation is the ground level at the point directly below the explosion relative to sea level; height is the additional distance added or subtracted by tower, balloon, shaft, tunnel, air drop or other contrivance. For rocket bursts the ground level is "N/A". In some cases it is not clear if the height is absolute or relative to ground, for example, Plumbbob/John. No number or units indicates the value is unknown, while "0" means zero. Sorting on this column is by elevation and height added together.
  6. Atmospheric, airdrop, balloon, gun, cruise missile, rocket, surface, tower, and barge are all disallowed by the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. Sealed shaft and tunnel are underground, and remained useful under the PTBT. Intentional cratering tests are borderline; they occurred under the treaty, were sometimes protested, and generally overlooked if the test was declared to be a peaceful use.
  7. Include weapons development, weapon effects, safety test, transport safety test, war, science, joint verification and industrial/peaceful, which may be further broken down.
  8. Designations for test items where known, "?" indicates some uncertainty about the preceding value, nicknames for particular devices in quotes. This category of information is often not officially disclosed.
  9. Estimated energy yield in tons, kilotons, and megatons. A ton of TNT equivalent is defined as 4.184 gigajoules (1 gigacalorie).
  10. Radioactive emission to the atmosphere aside from prompt neutrons, where known. The measured species is only iodine-131 if mentioned, otherwise it is all species. No entry means unknown, probably none if underground and "all" if not; otherwise notation for whether measured on the site only or off the site, where known, and the measured amount of radioactivity released.

References

  1. 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.31 1.32 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37 1.38 1.39 1.40 1.41 1.42 1.43 1.44 1.45 1.46 1.47 1.48 1.49 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  2. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  3. 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26 3.27 3.28 3.29 3.30 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "LT_150" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "LT_150" defined multiple times with different content
  4. 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 4.27 4.28 4.29 4.30 4.31 4.32 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "LT_48" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "LT_48" defined multiple times with different content
  5. 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "LT_40" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "LT_40" defined multiple times with different content
  6. 6.00 6.01 6.02 6.03 6.04 6.05 6.06 6.07 6.08 6.09 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21 6.22 6.23 6.24 6.25 6.26 6.27 6.28 6.29 6.30 6.31 6.32 6.33 6.34 6.35 6.36 6.37 6.38 6.39 6.40 6.41 6.42 6.43 6.44 6.45 6.46 6.47 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "LT_34" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "LT_34" defined multiple times with different content
  7. 7.00 7.01 7.02 7.03 7.04 7.05 7.06 7.07 7.08 7.09 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 7.17 7.18 7.19 7.20 7.21 7.22 7.23 7.24 7.25 7.26 7.27 7.28 7.29 7.30 7.31 7.32 7.33 7.34 7.35 7.36 7.37 7.38 7.39 7.40 7.41 7.42 7.43 7.44 7.45 7.46 7.47 7.48 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  8. 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  9. 9.0 9.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "LT_158" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "LT_158" defined multiple times with different content
  10. 10.0 10.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  11. Letter to J. S. Kelly, AEC on the Project Sulky Concept, by G. E. Johnson(leader of the Plowshare program for a time