Prostasomes

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Prostasomes were discovered in 1978 as submicron membranous vesicles (40-500 nm in diameter) secreted by the prostate gland epithelial cells into seminal fluid.[1] They possess an unusual lipid composition and a tight and highly ordered structure of their lipoprotein membranes resembling lipid raft. The physiological role of prostasomes implicates improvement of sperm motility and protection against attacks from the female immune defense during the passage to the egg.[2]

Investigations have shown that cancerous prostate cells and prostate cells with low differentiation continue to produce and secrete prostasomes.[3] The high incidence of prostate cancer in elderly men could take advantage of the immune protective activities supported by the prostasomes.

Immune regulating proteins found in prostasomes include: amino-peptidase N (CD13); dipeptidyl-peptidase IV (CD26); enkephalinase (neutral endopeptidase, CD10); angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE, CD143); tissue factor TF (CD142, thromboplastin); decay accelerating factor (CD55); protectin (CD59, inhibitor of MAC) and complement regulatory membrane cofactor protein (CD46).[4][5][6] Prostasomes also contain high levels of the divalent cations: Zn2+, Ca2+ and Mg2+.

Historical background of prostasome research

Year
1977-78 An ATPase activity in seminal plasma indicated an occurrence of membrane-surrounded extracellular vesicles [7][8][9]
1981 The first association between prostasomes and fertility was reported [10]
1982 The name prostasomes was coined (prosta-prostate; somes [Greek “soma”]-body) and the first functional study of prostasomes was performed [11][12][13][14][15]
1983 The first electron microscopic pictures of prostasomes inside storage vesicles (multivesicular bodies) in cytoplasm of prostate epithelial cells and their extracellular release into lumen of the prostate [16][17]
1984 The role of prostasomes in infertility and prostate cancer was investigated [18]
1985 The first comprehensive review of prostasomes was published in Biochim Biophys Acta [19]
1986-89 Studies on ATPases on the prostasomal surface [20][21][22][23]
1989 The prostasomal membrane was found to have a much higher cholesterol/phospholipid ratio than ordinary cellular membranes [24]
1990 Nucleic acid was found to be associated with prostasomes.[25] An interaction between prostasomes and sperm was shown [26]
1991-94 Prostasomes and their role in immunosuppression were investigated in several articles.[27][28][29] Granulophysin (CD63) was suggested as a marker for prostasomes[30]
1995-2001 Monoclonal antibodies against prostasomes were produced and several studies involving these antibodies were performed [31][32][33] as well as prostasome-sperm interaction studies.[34][35][36][37][38][39] Prostasomes were discovered in prostatic fluid of other species.[40][41] Prostatic cancer cell lines were found to produce prostasomes.[42][43] Prostasomes displayed anti-bacterial activity[44]
2001 An international symposium on prostasomes was held at Wenner-Gren Centre in Stockholm[45]
2001 Autoantibodies against prostasomes were evaluated as biomarkers for prostate cancer [46]
2003 The first comprehensive shotgun proteomics of the prostasome proteome [47] and it has been followed by two others [48][49]
2005 Haemostasis coupled to prostasomes and the prostasomal membrane in fertility and in cancer [50][51][52]
2009- Investigation of prostasomal DNA.[53][54][55] DNA was found in both non-malignant prostasomes as well as in prostate cancer (PC3) cell derived prostasomes/exosomes [53]
2009- Prostasomes as a serum biomarker of prostate cancer [56]

References

  1. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
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  4. ↑ Ronquist, G., Jin, M., Schrimpf, S. and Nilsson, B. O. (Motta, P. M. ed.) (1997) Prostasomes and human reproduction. Microscopy of Reproduction and Development: A Dynamic Approach pp. 213-219. Antonio Delfino Editore , Rome
  5. ↑ Ronquist, G., Carlsson, L., Larsson, A. and Nilsson, B. O. (Ronquist, G. and Nilsson, B. O. eds.) (2002) Prostasomes. Prostasomes: Proceedings from a symposium held at the Wenner-Gren Centre, Stockholm, June 2001 pp. 1-9. Portland Press , London
  6. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
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