27th United States Congress

"27th Congress" redirects here. For the Soviet congress, see 27th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.

27th United States Congress

26th ← → 28th United States Capitol (1846) Duration: March 4, 1841 – March 4, 1843 Senate President: John Tyler (until April 4, 1841) Vacant (from April 4, 1841) Senate Pres. pro tem: William R. King Samuel L. Southard Willie P. Mangum House Speaker: John White Members: 52 Senators 242 Representatives 3 Non-voting members Senate Majority: Whig House Majority: Whig Sessions Special: March 4, 1841 – March 15, 1841 1st: May 31, 1841 – September 13, 1841 2nd: December 6, 1841 – August 31, 1842 3rd: December 5, 1842 – March 3, 1843 (lame duck)

The Twenty-seventh United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1841 to March 4, 1843, during the one-month administration of U.S. President William Henry Harrison and the first two years of the administration of his successor, John Tyler. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Fifth Census of the United States in 1830. Both chambers had a Whig majority.

Major events

Main articles: 1841 in the United States, 1842 in the United States, and 1843 in the United States

• March 4, 1841: William Henry Harrison was inaugurated as President of the United States
• April 4, 1841: Harrison died and John Tyler became President
• August 16, 1841: President Tyler's veto of a bill to re-establish the Second Bank of the United States led Whig Party members to riot outside the White House in the most violent demonstration on White House grounds in U.S. history.
• May 19, 1842: Dorr Rebellion

Major legislation

Main article: Major legislation: 27th United States Congress

• April 19, 1841: Bankruptcy Act of 1841, ch. 9, 5 Stat. 440
• September 4, 1841: Preemption Act of 1841, ch. 16, 5 Stat. 453
• August 4, 1842: Armed Occupation Act, 5 Stat. 502
• August 30, 1842: Tariff of 1842 ("Black Tariff"), ch. 270, 5 Stat. 548

Treaties

• August 9, 1842: Webster-Ashburton Treaty signed, establishing the United States–Canada border east of the Rocky Mountains.

Party summary

Senate

	Party (Shading shows control)		Total	Vacant
	Democratic (D)	Whig (W)
End of the previous congress	30	20	50	0
Begin	22	29	51	1
End	20		49	3
Final voting share	40.8%	59.2%
Beginning of the next congress	22	26	48	4

House of Representatives

Affiliation	Party (Shading indicates majority caucus)					Total
	Democratic	Independent Democratic	States Rights Whig	Whig	Other		Vacant
End of previous Congress	124	0	0	111	2	242	0
Begin	97	1	1	142	0	241	1
End	100			139
Final voting share	41.5%	0.4%	0.4%	57.7%	0.0%
Beginning of next Congress	147	1	0	72	3	223	0

Leadership

President of the Senate
John Tyler

Senate

• President: John Tyler (W), until April 4, 1841, thereafter vacant
• Presidents pro tempore: William R. King (D), elected March 4, 1841
  • Samuel L. Southard) (W), elected March 11, 1841
  • Willie P. Mangum (W), elected May 31, 1842

House of Representatives

• Speaker: John D. White (W)

Members

This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed in order of seniority, and Representatives are listed by district.

Senate

Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring reelection in 1844; Class 2 meant their term began with this Congress, requiring reelection in 1846; and Class 3 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring reelection in 1842.

Alabama

• 2. William R. King (D)
• 3. Clement C. Clay (D), until November 15, 1841
  • Arthur P. Bagby (D), from November 24, 1841

Arkansas

• 2. William Fulton (D)
• 3. Ambrose Sevier (D)

Connecticut

• 3. Perry Smith (D)
• 1. Jabez W. Huntington (W)

Delaware

• 1. Richard H. Bayard (W)
• 2. Thomas Clayton (W)

Georgia

• 3. Alfred Cuthbert (D)
• 2. John Berrien (W)

Illinois

• 3. Richard M. Young (D)
• 2. Samuel McRoberts (D)

Indiana

• 3. Oliver H. Smith (W)
• 1. Albert White (W)

Kentucky

• 3. Henry Clay (W), until March 31, 1842
  • John J. Crittenden (W), from March 31, 1842
• 2. James T. Morehead (W)

Louisiana

• 3. Alexander Mouton (D), until March 1, 1842
  • Charles Conrad (W), from April 14, 1842
• 2. Alexander Barrow (W)

Maine

• 1. Reuel Williams (D), until February 15, 1843
• 2. George Evans (W)

Maryland

• 1. William Merrick (W)
• 3. John L. Kerr (W)

Massachusetts

• 2. Isaac C. Bates (W)
• 1. Rufus Choate (W)

Michigan

• 1. Augustus S. Porter (W)
• 2. William Woodbridge (W)

Mississippi

• 2. Robert J. Walker (D)
• 1. John Henderson (W)

Missouri

• 1. Thomas Benton (D)
• 3. Lewis F. Linn (D)

New Hampshire

• 3. Franklin Pierce (D), until February 28, 1842
  • Leonard Wilcox (D), from March 1, 1842
• 2. Levi Woodbury (D)

New Jersey

• 1. Samuel L. Southard (W), until June 26, 1842
  • William L. Dayton (W), from July 2, 1842
• 2. Jacob W. Miller (W)

New York

• 3. Silas Wright (D)
• 1. Nathaniel P. Tallmadge (W)

North Carolina

• 2. Willie Mangum (W)
• 3. William Graham (W)

Ohio

• 3. William Allen (D)
• 1. Benjamin Tappan (D)

Pennsylvania

• 3. James Buchanan (D)
• 1. Daniel Sturgeon (D)

Rhode Island

• 1. Nathan Dixon (W), until January 29, 1842
  • William Sprague (W), from February 18, 1842
• 2. James F. Simmons (W)

South Carolina

• 2. John C. Calhoun (D)
• 3. William C. Preston (W), until November 29, 1842
  • George McDuffie (D), from December 23, 1842

Tennessee

• 1. Alfred O. P. Nicholson (D), until February 7, 1842
• 2. vacant

Vermont

• 3. Samuel Prentiss (W), until April 11, 1842
  • Samuel C. Crafts (W), from April 23, 1842
• 1. Samuel S. Phelps (W)

Virginia

• 1. William C. Rives (W)
• 2. William S. Archer (W)

President pro tempore, 1841
William R. King

President pro tempore, 1841-42
Samuel L. Southard

President pro tempore, 1842-43
Willie Person Mangum

House of Representatives

See also: United States House of Representatives elections, 1840

Alabama

All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.

• At-large. Reuben Chapman (D)
• At-large. George S. Houston (D)
• At-large. Dixon H. Lewis (D)
• At-large. William W. Payne (D)
• At-large. Benjamin Shields (D)

Arkansas

• At-large. Edward Cross (D)

Connecticut

• 1. Joseph Trumbull (W)
• 2. William Boardman (W)
• 3. Thomas W. Williams (W)
• 4. Thomas B. Osborne (W)
• 5. Truman Smith (W)
• 6. John H. Brockway (W)

Delaware

• At-large. George B. Rodney (W)

Georgia

All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.

• At-large. Julius C. Alford (W), until October 1, 1841
  • Edward Black (D), from January 3, 1842
• At-large. William Dawson (W), until November 13, 1841
  • Walter T. Colquitt (D), from January 3, 1842
• At-large. Thomas Foster (W)
• At-large. Roger Gamble (W)
• At-large. Richard W. Habersham (W), until December 2, 1842
  • George W. Crawford (W), from January 7, 1843
• At-large. Thomas Butler King (W)
• At-large. James Meriwether (W)
• At-large. Eugenius Nisbet (W), until October 12, 1841
  • Mark Cooper (D), from January 3, 1842
• At-large. Lott Warren (W)

Illinois

• 1. John Reynolds (D)
• 2. Zadok Casey (Independent D)
• 3. John T. Stuart (W)

Indiana

• 1. George H. Proffit (W)
• 2. Richard W. Thompson (W)
• 3. Joseph L. White (W)
• 4. James H. Cravens (W)
• 5. Andrew Kennedy (D)
• 6. David Wallace (W)
• 7. Henry S. Lane (W)

Kentucky

• 1. Linn Boyd (D)
• 2. Philip Triplett (W)
• 3. Joseph R. Underwood (W)
• 4. Bryan Owsley (W)
• 5. John Thompson (W)
• 6. Willis Green (W)
• 7. John Pope (W)
• 8. James Sprigg (W)
• 9. John White (W)
• 10. Thomas F. Marshall (W)
• 11. Landaff Andrews (W)
• 12. Garrett Davis (W)
• 13. William Butler (D)

Louisiana

• 1. Edward White (W)
• 2. John Dawson (D)
• 3. John Moore (W)

Maine

• 1. Nathan Clifford (D)
• 2. William P. Fessenden (W)
• 3. Benjamin Randall (W)
• 4. David Bronson (W), from May 31, 1841
• 5. Nathaniel Littlefield (D)
• 6. Alfred Marshall (D)
• 7. Joshua A. Lowell (D)
• 8. Elisha Allen (W)

Maryland

The 4th district was a plural district with two representatives.

• 1. Isaac Jones (W)
• 2. James Pearce (W)
• 3. James W. Williams (D), until December 2, 1842
  • Charles S. Sewall (D), from January 2, 1843
• 4. John P. Kennedy (W)
• 4. Alexander Randall (W)
• 5. William Cost Johnson (W)
• 6. John Mason (D)
• 7. Augustus Sollers (W)

Massachusetts

• 1. Robert Winthrop (W), until May 25, 1842
  • Nathan Appleton (W), from June 9, 1842 until September 28, 1842
  • Robert Winthrop (W), from November 29, 1842
• 2. Leverett Saltonstall (W)
• 3. Caleb Cushing (W)
• 4. William Parmenter (D)
• 5. Levi Lincoln, Jr. (W), until March 16, 1841
  • Charles Hudson (W), from May 3, 1841
• 6. Osmyn Baker (W)
• 7. George N. Briggs (W)
• 8. William B. Calhoun (W)
• 9. William S. Hastings (W), until June 17, 1842
• 10. Nathaniel B. Borden (W)
• 11. Barker Burnell (W)
• 12. John Quincy Adams (W)

Michigan

• At-large. Jacob M. Howard (W)

Mississippi

All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.

• At-large. William M. Gwin (D)
• At-large. Jacob Thompson (D)

Missouri

All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.

• At-large. John C. Edwards (D)
• At-large. John Miller (D)

New Hampshire

All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.

• At-large. Charles G. Atherton (D)
• At-large. Edmund Burke (D)
• At-large. Ira A. Eastman (D)
• At-large. John R. Reding (D)
• At-large. Tristram Shaw (D)

New Jersey

All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.

• At-large. John B. Aycrigg (W)
• At-large. William Halstead (W)
• At-large. John P. B. Maxwell (W)
• At-large. Joseph F. Randolph (W)
• At-large. Charles C. Stratton (W)
• At-large. Thomas J. Yorke (W)

New York

There were four plural districts, the 8th, 17th, 22nd & 23rd had two representatives each, the 3rd had four representatives.

• 1. Charles A. Floyd (D)
• 2. Joseph Egbert (D)
• 3. Charles G. Ferris (D)
• 3. John McKeon (D)
• 3. James I. Roosevelt (D)
• 3. Fernando Wood (D)
• 4. Aaron Ward (D)
• 5. Richard D. Davis (D)
• 6. James G. Clinton (D)
• 7. John Van Buren (D)
• 8. Jacob Houck, Jr. (D)
• 8. Robert McClellan (D)
• 9. Hiram P. Hunt (W)
• 10. Daniel D. Barnard (W)
• 11. Archibald L. Linn (W)
• 12. Bernard Blair (W)
• 13. Thomas A. Tomlinson (W)
• 14. Henry Bell Van Rensselaer (W)
• 15. John Sanford (D)
• 16. Andrew W. Doig (D)
• 17. David P. Brewster (D)
• 17. John G. Floyd (D)
• 18. Thomas C. Chittenden (W)
• 19. Samuel S. Bowne (D)
• 20. Samuel Gordon (D)
• 21. John C. Clark (W)
• 22. Samuel Partridge (D)
• 22. Lewis Riggs (D)
• 23. Victory Birdseye (W)
• 23. A. Lawrence Foster (W)
• 24. Christopher Morgan (W)
• 25. John Maynard (W)
• 26. Francis Granger (W), until March 5, 1841
  • John Greig (W), from May 21, 1841 until September 25, 1841
  • Francis Granger (W), from November 27, 1841
• 27. William M. Oliver (D)
• 28. Timothy Childs (W)
• 29. Seth M. Gates (W)
• 30. John Young (W)
• 31. Staley N. Clarke (W)
• 32. Millard Fillmore (W)
• 33. Alfred Babcock (W)

North Carolina

• 1. Kenneth Rayner (W)
• 2. John Daniel (D)
• 3. Edward Stanly (W)
• 4. William Washington (W)
• 5. James McKay (D)
• 6. Archibald H. Arrington (D)
• 7. Edmund Deberry (W)
• 8. Romulus Saunders (D)
• 9. Augustine Shepperd (W)
• 10. Abraham Rencher (W)
• 11. Greene Caldwell (D)
• 12. James Graham (W)
• 13. Lewis Williams (W), until February 23, 1842
  • Anderson Mitchell (W), from April 27, 1842

Ohio

• 1. Nathanael G. Pendleton (W)
• 2. John B. Weller (D)
• 3. Patrick Goode (W)
• 4. Jeremiah Morrow (W)
• 5. William Doan (D)
• 6. Calvary Morris (W)
• 7. William Russell (W)
• 8. Joseph Ridgway (W)
• 9. William Medill (D)
• 10. Samson Mason (W)
• 11. Benjamin S. Cowen (W)
• 12. Joshua Mathiot (W)
• 13. James Mathews (D)
• 14. George Sweeny (D)
• 15. Sherlock Andrews (W)
• 16. Joshua Giddings (W), until March 22, 1842 and from December 5, 1842
• 17. John Hastings (D)
• 18. Ezra Dean (D)
• 19. Samuel Stokely (W)

Pennsylvania

There were two plural districts, the 2nd had two representatives, the 4th had three representatives.

• 1. Charles Brown (D)
• 2. George Toland (W)
• 2. John Sergeant (W), until September 15, 1841
  • Joseph R. Ingersoll (W), from October 12, 1841
• 3. Charles Ingersoll (D)
• 4. Jeremiah Brown (W)
• 4. John Edwards (W)
• 4. Francis James (W)
• 5. Joseph Fornance (D)
• 6. Robert Ramsey (W)
• 7. John Westbrook (D)
• 8. Peter Newhard (D)
• 9. George Keim (D)
• 10. William Simonton (W)
• 11. James Gerry (D)
• 12. James Cooper (W)
• 13. Amos Gustine (D)
• 14. James Irvin (W)
• 15. Benjamin Bidlack (D)
• 16. John Snyder (D)
• 17. Davis Dimock, Jr. (D), until January 13, 1842
  • Almon Read (D), from March 18, 1842
• 18. Charles Ogle (W), until May 10, 1841
  • Henry Black (W), from June 28, 1841 until November 28, 1841
  • James M. Russell (W), from December 21, 1841
• 19. Albert G. Marchand (D)
• 20. Enos Hook (D), until April 18, 1841
  • Henry W. Beeson (D), from May 31, 1841
• 21. Joseph Lawrence (W), until April 17, 1842
  • Thomas M. T. McKennan (W), from May 30, 1842
• 22. William W. Irwin (W)
• 23. William Jack (D)
• 24. Thomas Henry (W)
• 25. Arnold Plumer (D)

Rhode Island

Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.

• At-large. Robert B. Cranston (W)
• At-large. Joseph L. Tillinghast (W)

South Carolina

• 1. Isaac E. Holmes (D)
• 2. Robert Rhett (D)
• 3. John Campbell (D)
• 4. Sampson H. Butler (D), until September 27, 1842
  • Samuel W. Trotti (D), from December 17, 1842
• 5. Francis Pickens (D)
• 6. William Butler (W)
• 7. James Rogers (D)
• 8. Thomas D. Sumter (D)
• 9. Patrick C. Caldwell (D)

Tennessee

• 1. Thomas Arnold (W)
• 2. Abraham McClellan (D)
• 3. Joseph Williams (W)
• 4. Thomas Campbell (W)
• 5. Hopkins L. Turney (D)
• 6. William B. Campbell (W)
• 7. Robert L. Caruthers (W)
• 8. Meredith Gentry (W)
• 9. Harvey M. Watterson (D)
• 10. Aaron V. Brown (D)
• 11. Cave Johnson (D)
• 12. Milton Brown (W)
• 13. Christopher Williams (W)

Vermont

• 1. Hiland Hall (W)
• 2. William Slade (W)
• 3. Horace Everett (W)
• 4. Augustus Young (W)
• 5. John Mattocks (W)

Virginia

• 1. Francis Mallory (W)
• 2. George B. Cary (D)
• 3. John Jones (D)
• 4. William Goode (D)
• 5. Edmund W. Hubard (D)
• 6. Walter Coles (D)
• 7. William L. Goggin (W)
• 8. Henry A. Wise (W)
• 9. Robert Hunter (States-Rights Whig)
• 10. John Taliaferro (W)
• 11. John Botts (W)
• 12. Thomas Gilmer (W)
• 13. Linn Banks (D), until December 6, 1841
  • William Smith (D), from December 6, 1841
• 14. Cuthbert Powell (W)
• 15. Richard W. Barton (W)
• 16. William Harris (D)
• 17. Alexander Stuart (W)
• 18. George Hopkins (D)
• 19. George W. Summers (W)
• 20. Samuel Hays (D)
• 21. Lewis Steenrod (D)

Non-voting members

• Florida Territory. David Levy Yulee (D)
• Iowa Territory. Augustus C. Dodge (D)
• Wisconsin Territory. Henry Dodge (D)

Speaker of the House
John White

Changes in membership

The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress.

Senate

• replacements: 9
  • Democrats: no net change
  • Whigs: no net change
• deaths: 2
• resignations: 8
• interim appointments: 0
• vacancy: 1
• Total seats with changes: 10

See also: List of special elections to the United States Senate

State (class)	Vacator	Reason for change	Successor	Date of successor's formal installation
Alabama (3)	Clement C. Clay (D)	Resigned November 15, 1841	Arthur P. Bagby (D)	Elected November 24, 1841
Rhode Island (1)	Nathan F. Dixon (W)	Died January 29, 1842	William Sprague (W)	Elected February 18, 1842
Tennessee (1)	Alfred O. P. Nicholson (D)	Resigned February 7, 1842	Vacant	Not filled this term
New Hampshire (3)	Franklin Pierce (D)	Resigned February 28, 1842	Leonard Wilcox (D)	Appointed March 1, 1842 and subsequently elected
Louisiana (3)	Alexandre Mouton (D)	Resigned March 1, 1842 after being elected Governor of Louisiana	Charles M. Conrad (W)	Appointed April 14, 1842
Kentucky (3)	Henry Clay (W)	Resigned March 31, 1842	John J. Crittenden (W)	Appointed March 31, 1842 and subsequently elected
Vermont (3)	Samuel Prentiss (W)	Resigned April 11, 1842 to become judge of the U.S. District Court of Vermont	Samuel C. Crafts (W)	Appointed April 23, 1842 and subsequently elected
New Jersey (1)	Samuel L. Southard (W)	Died June 26, 1842	William L. Dayton (W)	Appointed July 2, 1842
South Carolina (3)	William C. Preston (W)	Resigned November 29, 1842	George McDuffie (D)	Elected December 23, 1842
Maine (1)	Reuel Williams (D)	Resigned February 15, 1843	Vacant	Not filled this term

House of Representatives

• replacements: 17
  • Democrats: 3 seat net gain
  • Whigs: 3 seat net loss
• deaths: 8
• resignations: 12
• contested election: 1
• Total seats with changes: 20

Main article: List of special elections to the United States House of Representatives

District	Vacator	Reason for change	Successor	Date successor seated
Maine 4th	Vacant	Rep. George Evans resigned in previous congress	David Bronson (W)	Seated May 31, 1841
New York 26th	Francis Granger (W)	Resigned March 5, 1841 after being appointed United States Postmaster General	John Greig (W)	Seated May 21, 1841
Massachusetts 5th	Levi Lincoln, Jr. (W)	Resigned March 16, 1841 after being appointed Collector of the port of Boston	Charles Hudson (W)	Seated May 3, 1841
Pennsylvania 20th	Enos Hook (D)	Resigned April 18, 1841	Henry W. Beeson (D)	Seated May 31, 1841
Pennsylvania 18th	Charles Ogle (W)	Died May 10, 1841	Henry Black (W)	Seated June 28, 1841
Pennsylvania 2nd	John Sergeant (W)	Resigned September 15, 1841	Joseph R. Ingersoll (W)	Seated October 12, 1841
New York 26th	John Greig (W)	Resigned September 25, 1841	Francis Granger (W)	Seated November 27, 1841
Georgia At-large	Julius C. Alford (W)	Resigned October 1, 1841	Edward J. Black (D)	Seated January 3, 1842
Georgia At-large	Eugenius A. Nisbet (W)	Resigned October 12, 1841	Mark A. Cooper (D)	Seated January 3, 1842
Georgia At-large	William C. Dawson (W)	Resigned November 13, 1841	Walter T. Colquitt (D)	Seated January 3, 1842
Pennsylvania 18th	Henry Black (W)	Died November 28, 1841	James M. Russell (W)	Seated December 21, 1841
Virginia 13th	Linn Banks (D)	Lost contested election December 6, 1841	William Smith (D)	Seated December 6, 1841
Pennsylvania 17th	Davis Dimock, Jr. (D)	Died January 13, 1842	Almon H. Read (D)	Seated March 18, 1842
North Carolina 13th	Lewis Williams (W)	Died February 23, 1842	Anderson Mitchell (W)	Seated April 27, 1842
Ohio 16th	Joshua R. Giddings (W)	Resigned March 22, 1842 after vote of his censure and re-elected to same seat	Joshua R. Giddings (W)	Seated December 5, 1842
Pennsylvania 21st	Joseph Lawrence (W)	Died April 17, 1842	Thomas M. T. McKennan (W)	Seated May 30, 1842
Massachusetts 1st	Robert C. Winthrop (W)	Resigned May 25, 1842	Nathan Appleton (W)	Seated June 9, 1842
Massachusetts 9th	William S. Hastings (W)	Died June 17, 1842	Vacant	Not filled this Congress
South Carolina 4th	Sampson H. Butler (D)	Resigned September 27, 1842	Samuel W. Trotti (D)	Seated December 17, 1842
Massachusetts 1st	Nathan Appleton (W)	Resigned September 28, 1842	Robert C. Winthrop (W)	Seated November 29, 1842
Georgia At-large	Richard W. Habersham (W)	Died December 2, 1842	George W. Crawford (W)	Seated January 7, 1843
Maryland 3rd	James W. Williams (D)	Died December 2, 1842	Charles S. Sewall (D)	Seated January 2, 1843

Employees

• Architect of the Capitol: [Data unknown/missing. You can help!]

Senate

• Secretary: Asbury Dickens of North Carolina elected December 12, 1836
• Sergeant at Arms:
  • Stephen Haight of New York, elected September 4, 1837
  • Edward Dyer of Maryland, elected March 8, 1841
• Chaplain:
  • George G. Cookman, Methodist, elected December 31, 1839
  • Septimus Tustin, Presbyterian, elected June 12, 1841

House of Representatives

• Clerk: Matthew St. Clair Clarke of Pennsylvania, elected May 31, 1841
• Sergeant at Arms: Eleazor M. Townsend of Connecticut, elected June 8, 1841
• Doorkeeper: Joseph Follansbee of Massachusetts, elected June 8, 1841
• Postmaster: William J. McCormick, elected June 8, 1841
• Chaplain:
  • John W. French, Episcopalian, elected May 31, 1841
  • John N. Maffit, Methodist, elected December 6, 1841
  • Frederick T. Tiffany, Episcopalian, elected December 5, 1842

External links

• Statutes at Large, 1789-1875
• Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
• House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
• Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress
• U.S. House of Representatives: House History
• U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists