Xu (state)

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State of Xu
徐國/徐国
Unknown–512 BC
Xu at its greatest extent in 850 BC.
1) dark red: Xu heartland; red: Xu-led Huaiyi confederation; pink: Xu allies or under Xu influence.[1][2]
Capital Unknown; originally in Jiangsu, later in northern Anhui
Religion Chinese folk religion
Government Confederate monarchy[1]
Ruler
 •  c. 944 BC King Yan of Xu
 •  ?–512 BC Viscount Zhangyu of Xu
Historical era Western Zhou period
Spring and Autumn period
 •  Established Unknown
 •  Rebellion of the Three Guards c. 1042–1039 BC
 •  Zhou–Huaiyi War c. 944–943 BC
 •  War of Ehou the Border Protector c. 850 BC
 •  Conquered by Wu 512 BC
Succeeded by
Wu (state)
Chu (state)
Today part of  China

The State of Xu (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: 徐國; pinyin: Xú Guó) (also called Xurong (Chinese: 徐戎)[lower-alpha 1] by its enemies) was an independent Huaiyi state of the Chinese Bronze Age that was ruled by the Yíng family and centered at the northern shore of Hongze Lake in present-day northwestern Jiangsu, and later on in the Xizhou region of northern Anhui. An ancient but originally minor state that already existed during the late Shang dynasty, Xu was subjugated by the Western Zhou dynasty around 1039 BC, beginning a process of sinification. It eventually regained its independence and formed a confederation of 36 states that became powerful enough to challenge the Zhou empire for supremacy over the Central Plain. Able to consolidate its rule over a territory that streched from Hubei in the south, through eastern Henan, northern Anhui and Jiangsu, as far north as southern Shandong,[3] Xu's confederation remained a major power until the late Western Zhou period.[4] Even though Xu initially managed to expand its influence to the south during the following Spring and Autumn period,[5] its confederation began to suffer from external pressure and internal unrest and gradually broke up. Increasingly threatened by and losing territory to neighboring states, Xu was eventually conquered by Wu in 512 BC.[6]

History

Origin

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Like many other ancient states of China, a mythical foundation was attributed to Xu: The Yuanhe Xingzuan, a Tang dynasty compilation of information on the origins of Chinese surnames, as well as the Tong Zhi, a Southern Song dynasty historical book, state that the Xu peoples were descendants of the mythological emperor Zhuanxu, and that Zhuanxu's grandson Ruomu was enfeoffed as Lord of Xu during the reign of Yu the Great. The two books' sources for these statements are unknown.

Historically and archaeologically, the existence of Xu can be proven since the late Shang and early Zhou dynasty. By this time it was one of many Yi states and tribes that settled in the Huai River region. Like many local polities, Xu joined a rebellion against the Duke of Zhou, although it had no known direct relation to the two competing parties. The rebels lost the war, and Zhou royalists subsequently attacked the eastern rebel allies, including the Huaiyi. Xu itself was invaded and subjugated by the Zhou royal army under King Cheng in 1039 BC.[7][8]

Rise to power and dominance

Although it was not completely destroyed or dismantled like many Dongyi states to the north in Shandong, Xu was forced to become a vassal of the Zhou dynasty for almost one hundred years. During this time, it was not only strongly influenced by the Zhou culture, but also served as link to the dynasty's southernmost ally, Wu.[9] When the Zhou kingdom began to show signs of increasing political and military weakness, such as its disastrous defeat during a war against Chu (961–957 BC),[10] Xu gathered the strength to rise up against its overlord. In 944 BC, Lord Yan of Xu finally managed to unite 36 Dongyi and Huaiyi states under his leadership, declared himself king and rose up in rebellion.[3] The Huaiyi confederation overcame the Zhou's initial defenses, and marched through the Ying and Ru River valleys against the dynasty's eastern capital Luoyi. The Zhou royal armies eventually stopped the invasion during the dramatic Battle at Yulin, next to modern-day Pingdingshan. The war, however, resulted in a stalemate and armistice unfavorable for the Zhou. King Mu of Zhou not only accepted Xu's independence, but also ceded control over the Huai River region to King Yan. Xu became the new major power of the east and a serious political rival to the Zhou dynasty.[11][1] It also began to culturally influence the Yangtze delta region.[5]

Xu maintained its dominance during the post-King Mu period of the mid-Western Zhou period, while the armistice proved inadequate to ensure peace. The military contest between the Huaiyi and Zhou kingdom never really stopped, and even though the latter increasingly suffered from internal disorder and even chaos, it remained a formidable adversary for Xu's confederation. King Li of Zhou (857-842/28)[lower-alpha 2] led several campaigns against the states of the Huai River, such as Jiao and Yu. In turn, the Huaiyi confederation under Xu began a massive counter offensive in 850 BC, aiming to conquer the North China Plain and to destroy the Zhou rule over the East. Allied with Ehou, rebellious ruler of E, and the Dongyi states, the Huaiyi brought the Zhou dynasty to the brink of destruction. Their forces even reached the Luo and Yi River valleys, threatening the dynasty's royal domain. Eventually, however, the anti-Zhou alliance collapsed after the capture of Ehou and the destruction of E by Zhou loyalists.[2]

Decline

After almost a century of decline and separatism, Xu (here: Tsou, dark blue) had shrunk to a tiny polity surrounded by much more powerful states.

War was renewed under King Xuan of Zhou, who aimed to restabilize and restore the Zhou kingdom. Enlisting the military aid of several loyalist states of Shandong, he launched a massive campaign against the Huaiyi and Xu in 822 BC, either defeating them or at least ensuring a favorable peace.[13] The war probably greatly weakened Xu, though it was not crippled. Meanwhile, the royal power of the Zhou dynasty collapsed in 771 BC, ushering in the Spring and Autumn period. Initially, Xu was able to retain much of its power during this new era of war, possibly even further expanding into the Yangtze delta region.[5] Over time, however, Xu's rule weakened and several smaller broke away from the confederation, such as the State of Zhongli[14] which at one point led a military campaign against Xu.[15] By 668 BC, Xu was still a local major power, though it was no longer recognized as kingdom but as viscounty by neighboring states. In that year, the states of Lu, Song and Qi allied and attacked Xu together, though the latter managed to hold out.[16] Eleven years later, Xu conquered the minor state of Shu,[lower-alpha 3][17] and around the same time formed an alliance with the Dongyi state of Ju. The two allies raided Qi, and even managed to destroy its capital city.[18] In 645 BC, Xu was decisively defeated by Chu at Loulin. From then on, Xu was increasingly threatened by its southern and southwestern neighbors, Wu and Chu, which had greatly grown in political and military might, gradually absorbing all states between them. As result, the viscounts of Xu were forced to ally with some of their long-time northern enemies such as Qi.[5][19] In 620 BC, the viscounty undertook a campaign against Ju in Shandong.[20]

A ruler of Xu took part in a meeting of the most powerful states of China at Shen in 538 BC. By this time, Xu's confederation had completely broken apart, as the remaining minor Huaiyi states no longer accepted Xu's rule and had instead allied with Chu. The latter also captured the viscount after the meeting, compelling Xu to participate in an invasion of Wu the next year.[21] Over the next years, Xu was attacked by both Qi as well as Chu.[22] Probably under the pressure of its enemies, the viscounty had by this time relocated its center to the Xizhou (Chinese: 泗州) region in northern Anhui. Eventually, Xu became involved in a succession dispute of Wu, when it sheltered Prince Yanyu from his nephew, King Helü of Wu. Helü ordered Xu to hand the fugitive over, but Viscount Zhangyu of Xu sympathized with Yanyu and let him go. Yanyu then asked the state of Chu for help, and Xu had to side with Chu during the following war with Wu.[23] Wu, aided by the famous military strategist Sun Tzu, defeated Chu and conquered Xu, forcing Zhangyu to flee his domain.[24][25] Xu was dismantled, and remants of its nobility were relocated to the northwestern part of modern Jiangxi near Jing'an, where several Xu bronze artifacts and a tomb were discovered.[26]

Xu in astronomy

Xu is represented with the star Theta Serpentis in asterism Left Wall, Heavenly Market enclosure (see Chinese constellation).[27]

Notes

  1. Literally "Xu barbarians", "Xu foreigners" or "Xu proper"
  2. Li effectively ruled only until 842 BC, when he was forced into exile; nevertheless, he remained official king until 828 BC.[12]
  3. This was a small state of the Huai River region that should not be confused with Shu of Sichuan.

References

Bibliography

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