Jammu and Kashmir (state)

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This article is about the former state. For the current union territory, see Jammu and Kashmir (union territory). For the former princely state, see Jammu and Kashmir (princely state).
Jammu and Kashmir
Former state
←
1954–2019 →
 
→
Flag Coat of arms
Flag Emblem
Location of Jammu and Kashmir
Map of Jammu and Kashmir
Capital Srinagar (May–October)
Jammu (November–April)[1]
Governor
 •  1954–1965 as Sadr-e-Riyasat; 1965–1967 Karan Singh (first)
 •  2018–2019[2] Satya Pal Malik (last)
Chief Minister
 •  1947–1948 as Prime Minister Mehr Chand Mahajan (first)
 •  2016–2018[3] Mehbooba Mufti (last)
Legislature Jammu and Kashmir Legislature
 •  Upper house Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Council (36 seats)
 •  Lower house Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly (89 seats)
History
 •  Presidential order of 1954 comes into force, established as state of India 14 May 1954
 •  Reorganized into Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh 31 October 2019
Political subdivisions 22 districts

Jammu and Kashmir[lower-alpha 1] was a region formerly administered by India as a state from 1954 to 2019, constituting the southern and southeastern portion of the larger Kashmir region, which has been the subject of a dispute between India, Pakistan and China since the mid-20th century.[5][6] The underlying region of this state were parts of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, whose western districts, now known as Azad Kashmir, and northern territories, now known as Gilgit-Baltistan, are administered by Pakistan. The Aksai Chin region in the east, bordering Tibet, has been under Chinese control since 1962.

After the Government of India repealed the special status accorded to Jammu and Kashmir under Article 370 of the Indian constitution in 2019, the Parliament of India passed the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, which contained provisions that dissolved the state and reorganised it into two union territories – Jammu and Kashmir in the west and Ladakh in the east, with effect from 31 October 2019.[7] At the time of its dissolution, Jammu and Kashmir was the only state in India with a Muslim-majority population.

History

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For the pre-1954 history, see Kashmir § History.

Establishment

After the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948, the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir was divided between India (which controlled the regions of Jammu, Kashmir Valley, and Ladakh) and Pakistan (which controlled Gilgit–Baltistan and Azad Kashmir). The Indian-administered territories elected a constituent assembly in 1951, which ratified the accession of the state to India in 1954.[8][9]

In 1956–57, China constructed a road through the disputed Aksai Chin area of Ladakh. India's belated discovery of this road culminated in the Sino-Indian War of 1962; China has since administered Aksai Chin.[8] Following the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, India and Pakistan signed the Simla Agreement, recognising a Line of Control in Kashmir, and committing to a peaceful resolution of the dispute through bilateral negotiations.[10]

Kashmir insurgency

In the late 1980s, discontent over the high-handed policies of the union government and allegations of the rigging of the 1987 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election[11] triggered a violent uprising and armed insurgency[12][13] which was backed by Pakistan.[14] Pakistan claimed to be giving its "moral and diplomatic" support to the separatist movement.[15] The Inter-Services Intelligence of Pakistan has been accused by India and the international community of supporting, supplying arms and training mujahideen,[16][17] to fight in Jammu and Kashmir.[18][17][19] In 2015, former President of Pakistan Pervez Musharraf admitted that Pakistan had supported and trained insurgent groups in the 1990s.[20] India has repeatedly called Pakistan to end its "cross-border terrorism" in Kashmir.[15]

Since 1989, a prolonged, bloody conflict between the Islamic militant separatists and the Indian Army took place, both of whom have been accused of widespread human rights abuses, including abductions, massacres, rapes and armed robbery.[note 1] Several new militant groups with radical Islamic views emerged and changed the ideological emphasis of the movement to Islamic. This was facilitated by a large influx of Islamic "Jihadi" fighters (mujahadeen) who had entered the Kashmir valley following the end of the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1980s.[15]

File:Police in Kashmir confronting violent protestors December 2018.jpg
Police and protesters confronting each other in Kashmir, 2018

Following the 2008 Kashmir unrest, secessionist movements in the region were boosted.[30][31] The 2016–17 Kashmir unrest resulted in the death of over 90 civilians and the injury of over 15,000.[32][33] Six policemen, including a sub-inspector were killed in an ambush in Anantnag in June 2017, by trespassing militants of the Pakistan-based Lashkar-e-Toiba.[34] An attack on an Indian police convoy in Pulwama, in February 2019, resulted in the deaths of 40 police officers. Responsibility for the attack was claimed by a Pakistan-backed militant group Jaish-e-Mohammed.[35]

Dissolution

In August 2019, both houses of the Parliament of India passed resolutions to amend Article 370 and extend the Constitution of India in its entirety to the state, which was implemented as a constitutional order by the President of India.[36][37] At the same time, the parliament also passed the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019, which contained provisions that dissolved the state of Jammu and Kashmir and established two new union territories: the eponymous union territory of Jammu and Kashmir, and that of Ladakh.[38]

The reorganisation act was assented to by the President of India, and came into effect on 31 October 2019.[39] Prior to these measures, the union government locked down the Kashmir Valley, increased security forces, imposed Section 144 that prevented assembly, and placed political leaders such as former Jammu and Kashmir chief ministers Omar Abdullah and Mehbooba Mufti under house arrest.[40] Internet and phone services were also blocked.[41][42][43]

Administrative divisions

File:Jammu-Kashmir-Ladakh.svg
The Divisions of Jammu and Kashmir: Kashmir (green), Jammu (orange) and Ladakh (blue)

The state of Jammu and Kashmir consisted of three divisions: the Jammu Division, the Kashmir Division and Ladakh which are further divided into 22 districts.[44] The Siachen Glacier, while under Indian military control, did not lie under the administration of the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Kishtwar, Ramban, Reasi, Samba, Bandipora, Ganderbal, Kulgam and Shopian were districts formed in 2008.[44]

Districts

Division Name Headquarters Before 2007[45] After 2007
Area
(km2)		 Area
(km2)		 Area
(sq miles)		 Rural Area
(km2)		 Urban Area
(km2)		 Source
for area
Jammu Kathua district Kathua 2,651 2,502 966 2,458.84 43.16 [46]
Jammu district Jammu 3,097 2,342 904 2,089.87 252.13 [47]
Samba district Samba new district 904 349 865.24 38.76 [48]
Udhampur district Udhampur 4,550 2,637 1,018 2,593.28 43.72 [49]
Reasi district Reasi new district 1,719 664 1,679.99 39.01 [50]
Rajouri district Rajouri 2,630 2,630 1,015 2,608.11 21.89 [51]
Poonch district Poonch 1,674 1,674 646 1,649.92 24.08 [52]
Doda district Doda 11,691 8,912 3,441 8,892.25 19.75 [53]
Ramban district Ramban new district 1,329 513 1,313.92 15.08 [54]
Kishtwar district Kishtwar new district 1,644 635 1,643.37 0.63 [55]
Total for division Jammu 26,293 26,293 10,152 25,794.95 498.05 calculated
Kashmir Anantnag district Anantnag 3,984 3,574 1,380 3,475.76 98.24 [56]
Kulgam district Kulgam new district 410 158 360.20 49.80 [57]
Pulwama district Pulwama 1,398 1,086 419 1,047.45 38.55 [58]
Shopian district Shopian new district 312 120 306.56 5.44 [59]
Budgam district Budgam 1,371 1,361 525 1,311.95 49.05 [60]
Srinagar district Srinagar 2,228 1,979 764 1,684.42 294.53 [61]
Ganderbal district Ganderbal new district 259 100 233.60 25.40 [62]
Bandipora district Bandipora new district 345 133 295.37 49.63 [63]
Baramulla district Baramulla 4,588 4,243 1,638 4,179.44 63.56 [64]
Kupwara district Kupwara 2,379 2,379 919 2,331.66 47.34 [65]
Total for division Srinagar 15,948 15,948 6,158 15,226.41 721.54 calculated
Ladakh Kargil district Kargil 14,036 14,036 5,419 14,033.86 2.14 [66]
Leh district Leh 45,110 45,110 17,417 45,085.99 24.01 [67]
Total for division Leh and Kargil 59,146 59,146 22,836 59,119.85 26.15 calculated
Total 101,387 101,387 39,146 100,141.21 1,245.74 calculated

Demographics

Historical populations 
Census Pop. %±
1961 3,560,976
—
1971 4,616,632 29.6%
1981 5,987,389 29.7%
1991 7,837,051 30.9%
2001 10,143,700 29.4%
2011 12,541,302 23.6%
source: Census of India[68]
† 1951 and 1991 populations are estimated



Circle frame.svg

Jammu & Kashmir: mother-tongue of population, according to the 2011 Census of India.[69]

  Dogri (20.04%)
  Bhadrawahi (0.78%)
  Gojri (9.05%)
  Hindi (2.43%)
  Pahari (7.80%)
  Kashmiri (51.72%)
  Siraji (0.62%)
  Punjabi (1.75%)
  Bauti (0.80%)
  Purkhi (0.74%)
  Others (4.27%)

Jammu and Kashmir was the only state in India with a Muslim-majority population.[70] In the Census of India held in 1961, the first to be conducted after the formation of the state, Islam was practised by 68.31% of the population, while 28.45% followed Hinduism. The proportion of population that practised Islam fell to 64.19% by 1981 but recovered afterward.[71] According to the 2011 census, the last to be conducted in the state, Islam was practised by about 68.3% of the state population, while 28.4% followed Hinduism and small minorities followed Sikhism (1.9%), Buddhism (0.9%) and Christianity (0.3%).[72]

The state's official language was Urdu, which occupied a central space in media, education, religious and political discourses and the legislature of Jammu and Kashmir; the language functioned as a symbol of identity among Muslims of South Asia.[73] The first language of less than 1% of the population, it was regarded as a "neutral" and non-native language of the multilingual region, and broadly accepted by Kashmiri Muslims.[74][75] The dominant position of Urdu has been criticised for rendering Kashmiri into a functional "minority language," effectively restricting its use to households and family.[75][76]

The most widely spoken language is Kashmiri, the mother tongue of 53% of the population according to the 2011 census. Other major languages include Dogri (20%), Gojri (9.1%), Pahari (7.8%), Hindi (2.4%), Punjabi (1.8%),[69] Balti, Bateri, Bhadarwahi, Brokskat, Changthang, Ladakhi, Purik, Sheikhgal, Spiti Bhoti, and Zangskari. Additionally, several other languages, predominantly found in neighbouring regions, are also spoken by communities within Jammu and Kashmir: Bhattiyali, Chambeali, Churahi, Gaddi, Hindko, Lahul Lohar, Pangwali, Pattani, Sansi, and Shina.[77]

Government

Jammu and Kashmir was the only state in India which had special autonomy under Article 370 of the Constitution of India, according to which no law enacted by the Parliament of India, except for those in the field of defence, communication and foreign policy, would be extendable in Jammu and Kashmir unless it was ratified by the state legislature of Jammu and Kashmir.[78] The state was able to define the permanent residents of the state who alone had the privilege to vote in state elections, the right to seek government jobs and the ability to own land or property in the state.[79]

Jammu and Kashmir was the only Indian state to have its own official state flag, along with India's national flag,[80] in addition to a separate constitution. Designed by the then ruling National Conference, the flag of Jammu and Kashmir featured a plough on a red background symbolising labour; it replaced the Maharaja's state flag. The three stripes represented the three distinct administrative divisions of the state, namely Jammu, Valley of Kashmir, and Ladakh.[81]

Like all the states of India, Jammu and Kashmir had a multi-party democratic system of governance and had a bicameral legislature. At the time of drafting the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir, 100 seats were earmarked for direct elections from territorial constituencies. Of these, 25 seats were reserved for the areas of Jammu and Kashmir state that came under Pakistani control; this was reduced to 24 after the 12th amendment of the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir.[82] After a delimitation in 1988, the total number of seats increased to 111, of which 87 were within Indian-administered territory.[83] The Jammu and Kashmir Assembly had a 6-year term, in contrast to the norm of a 5-year term followed in every other state assemblies.[84][note 2] In 2005, it was reported that the Indian National Congress-led government in the state intended to amend the term to bring parity with the other states.[87]

Central provisions

In 1990, an Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act of India, which gave special powers to the Indian security forces, including the detaining of individuals for up to two years without presenting charges, was enforced in Jammu and Kashmir,[88][89] a decision which drew criticism from Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International for violating human rights.[90][91] Security forces claimed that many missing people were not detained, but had crossed into Pakistan-administered Kashmir to engage in militancy.[92]

Economy

The economy of Jammu and Kashmir was predominantly dependent on agriculture and related activities.[93] Horticulture played a vital role in the economic development of the state; produce included apples, apricots, cherries, pears, plums, almonds and walnuts.[94] The Doda district, rich in high-grade sapphire, had active mines until the 1989 insurgency; in 1998, the government discovered that smugglers had occupied these mines and stolen much of the resource.[95] Industrial development was constrained by the extreme mountainous landscape and power shortage.[96]

Jammu and Kashmir was one of the largest recipients of grants from India; in 2004, this amounted to US$812 million.[97] Tourism, which was integral to the economy, witnessed a decline owing to the insurgency, but foreign tourism later rebounded, and in 2009, the state was one among the top tourist destinations in India.[98] The economy was also benefited by Hindu pilgrims who visited the shrines of Vaishno Devi and Amarnath Temple annually.[99] The British government had reiterated its advise against all travel to Jammu and Kashmir in 2013, with certain exceptions.[100]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Sources that detail human right abuses in Jammu and Kashmir.[21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29]
  2. ↑ This anomaly arose because Jammu and Kashmir accepted the provision in the Forty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India but did not accept its repeal in the Forty-fourth Amendment.[85][86]
  1. ↑ Pronounced variably as /ˈdʒæmuː/ and /ˈdʒʌmuː/; /kæʃˈmɪər/ and /ˌkæʃmɪər/.[4]

References

Citations

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  4. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  5. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. (subscription required) Quote: "Jammu and Kashmir, state of India, located in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent in the vicinity of the Karakoram and westernmost Himalayan mountain ranges. The state is part of the larger region of Kashmir, which has been the subject of dispute between India, Pakistan, and China since the partition of the subcontinent in 1947."
  6. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. Quote: "Jammu and Kashmir: Territory in northwestern India, subject to a dispute between India and Pakistan. It has borders with Pakistan and China."
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  40. ↑ Article 370 Jammu And Kashmir LIVE Updates: "Abuse Of Executive Power," Rahul Gandhi Tweets On Article 370 Removal Archived 6 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine, NDTV, 6 August 2019.
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  55. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    Part B page 9 says the rural area is 1643.65 km2, whilst pages 10 and 22 says 1643.37 km2.
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    Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  57. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    Part B page 12 says the area of the district is 404 km2, but page 22 says 410 km2.
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  59. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    Part B pages 12 and 22 say the district area is 312.00 km2, but Part A page 10 says 307.42 km2.
  60. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    Part A says the district area is 1371 km2, Part B says 1371 km2 (page 11) and 1361 km2 (page 12s and 22).
  61. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    Part A page 48 says the district area was 2228.0 km2 in 2001 and 1978.95 km2 in 2011.
  62. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
    Part B page 11 says the district area is 393.04 km2, but pages 12 and 22 say 259.00 km2.
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    Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
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Sources

  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
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  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.

Further reading

  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
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