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The Disciple (novel)

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The Disciple
Le disciple (couverture de libre).jpg
Cover of the novel published by Éditions Plon - Nourrit (1921)
Author Paul Bourget
Original title Le Disciple
Country France
Language French
Publisher Lemerre
Publication date
 1889
Pages 359

The Disciple (French: Le Disciple) is a 1889 novel by Paul Bourget (1852–1935), written between September 1888 and May 1889. A novel of analysis and education for the new generations of the time, Bourget's masterpiece is also a novel with a thesis, as the writer denounces the responsibility of the teacher and accuses modern science of having replaced religion without providing any morals.

A book of transition that occupies a central place in Bourget's literary lifework, the novel closes the period during which the writer devoted himself to the analytical novel, imbued with fine human psychology and the study of morals, to herald the advent of the second period of his career, since from The Disciple, in 1889, Paul Bourget began his return to the Catholic faith, finally converting in 1901.[lower-alpha 1]

By participating in both novelistic forms (the analytical novel and the novel with a thesis), The Disciple, a "hybrid" novel,[lower-alpha 2] also marks a major break in the sentimental and social life of the author who, at this time, was getting married and breaking with his friends (the Cahen d'Anvers in particular) and his milieu.

History

Sources and context

The Chambige affair

Henri Chambige in 1888 (L'Illustration)

On 25 January 1888, Henri Chambige, a twenty-two-year-old law student, was discovered alive and unconscious in a villa in Sidi-Mabrouk, near Constantine.[3] Two bullets had torn his cheek. A thirty-year-old married woman lay beside him, her temple pierced by several revolver shots. Charged with murder, Chambige declared that they had wanted to end their lives. He killed her with his own hand and then attempted suicide.

Paul Bourget and Henri Chambige had known each other before 1888, and the writer was inspired to write a novel based on this tragedy,[4] even though he feared it would prove that "fashionable" writers, and he in particular, were helping to distort the minds of young people.[5][lower-alpha 3]

Bourget conducted a real investigation for his novel: he consulted press reports and impressions of the trial. Le Temps and La Gazette des Tribunaux provided additional information.[7] Bourget also drew on the views of a number of writers, in particular Maurice Barrès, who published The Sensibility of Henri Chambige in Le Figaro on 11 November 1888.[8]

Throughout his life, however, Bourget refused to admit that he was thinking of Chambige when he conceived the character of Greslou.[lower-alpha 4] Adrien Sixte was initially the chosen title of the future novel, but very quickly Greslou/Chambige's confession took up three-fifths of the volume.[10] In the end, this courtroom drama took on such significance that it "became a great trial of intelligence", and the novelist asserted himself as the conscience director of the new generations. In the end, this courtroom drama took on such significance that it became "a great trial of intelligence",[11] and the novelist asserted himself as the conscience director of the new generations.

"The storming of the Bastille". La Bombe, No. 18 (14 July 1889). Cover art by Paul de Sémant

Another case, the mysterious death of the Archduke Rudolf and his mistress Mary Vetsera at Mayerling, bears some resemblance to The Disciple's affabulation. Bourget also had to defend himself against exploiting this painful story in his novel.[12]

The Boulangist crisis

In 1887, the Third Republic underwent dangerous upheavals and hostility to parliament increased following the Wilson scandal, leading to the resignation of Jules Grévy. General Boulanger threatened to march on Paris. Paul Bourget, who felt great hostility towards the protagonists on both sides, despised both the Republicans and the Boulangist leaders.[13]

This situation explains the novelist's "frightening pessimism", which Henry Bordeaux echoed in his portrait of his friend.[14] All these events anchored the novelist in the idea that the Republic was synonymous with waste and that universal suffrage led to adventure. The novel's praise of the monarchy is reflected in the character of Count André de Jussat-Randon. Bourget's novels are often denunciations of the Republic. In fact, the year after the publication of The Disciple, Bourget wrote A Woman's Heart, a work in which his contempt for universal suffrage is once again perceptible.[15]

Manuscrit

The manuscript of The Disciple belonged for many years to the library collections of the Marquis Du Bourg de Bozas. His dedication to bibliophily was the result of a biographical accident: he was the heir of Charles Baudelaire's lawyer — and a bibliophile himself — Gustave Louis Chaix d'Est-Ange.[16]

Until 1891, Bourget had the habit of give manuscripts of his works to acquaintances and friends. Bourget's will forbade the publication of his unpublished works and diaries ("Hide your life [sic]", as the writer used to say).[17] The original manuscript of this major work was acquired by the National Library of France in 1996 (Drouot sale, 28 November 1996)[lower-alpha 5] to complete the Paul Bourget collection, which was acquired by donation in 1989 (N.a.f. 19749–19771).[18]

Example of a sketch by Paul Bourget on one of the preparatory manuscripts; here a self-portrait in Greece

Paul Bourget included in this manuscript (which is covered in a 31 × 23 cm binding) the preparatory diagrams, the scaffolding for his novel, to facilitate its genetic criticism; these are plans and "anatomies", as the writer explains. This first draft was written for the Nouvelle Revue, and therefore comprises parts rather than chapters. The plans and anatomies give us information about the characters; an inventory of their moral traits appears. Bourget, however, was not imaginative in his use of form;[19] as he was afraid of not "seeing" his characters, he drew their profiles on separate sheets of paper. For the last scene of The Disciple, which is very technical since it describes an incident during the proceedings, he wrote in the presence of a substitut[lower-alpha 6] to avoid any procedural errors.[lower-alpha 7]

Plot summary

Bourget

In 1885, the philosopher Adrien Sixte was visited by a young man of twenty, Robert Greslou, who submitted a manuscript of great quality. Initially enthusiastic about the atheism of the deterministic psychologist Sixte, Robert Greslou went to Auvergne to take up a post as preceptor to the Marquis of Jussat-Randon and tried to apply his master's experimental method to Charlotte de Jussat, a young virgin from the Auvergne nobility.[20]

Two years later, the Marquis's daughter, infatuated with the young man and realising that the affair was a scientific experiment devoid of genuine love for the young tutor, committed suicide with a vial of poison bought by her lover. Robert Greslou is accused of the murder and imprisoned. Greslou remained silent and did not defend himself against the accusation. From his cell, he writes a long confession to Adrien Sixte which, in the form of analepsis,[lower-alpha 8] forms the first part of the novel. The thinker is summoned to see the judge, who wonders to what extent the philosopher's influence may have destroyed his disciple's moral sense.

Adrien Sixte's first instinct was to absolve himself, but as he read his disciple's confession, he came to recognise that the young student had indeed found in his works the reasons that had led him to act in this way. Greslou, wishing to make reparation to Charlotte's brother, rushes to him, but Count André de Jussat, obeying the moral code of honour, executes the young student.

Characters

  • Adrien Sixte — a thinker, a scholar and a monist who, like Taine,[lower-alpha 9] disputed the existence of matter. He was also a psychologist, an emulator of Théodule Ribot who also borrowed from Émile Littré, since the old philosopher Sixte lived solely for his ideas, refusing any religious compromise.[22] But he was honest and admitted to the examining magistrate that his writings may have influenced Greslou's tragic decision.[23] He returns to religion in the last page of the story.
  • Robert Greslou — a disciple of Adrien Sixte, is the central character of the novel. He is a depraved young intellectual who has lost his faith and converted to determinist theories.[24] A "thinking machine, devoid of will-power, having sacrificed his whole energy to the worship of an abstract idea".[25] He had made Charlotte fall in love and then feel the vertigo of destruction. He ridiculed moral and social values, good and evil, the fatherland and justice. His masters are Alfred de Musset, who killed the Christ in him, Stendhal, who gave him the disturbing example of Julien Sorel, and even Spinoza, who gave Greslou's evil tendencies a disturbing justification.
  • Count André de Jussat — Charlotte de Jussat's brother was a cavalry officer, noble, royalist and Catholic. During the tragedy, Robert Greslou changes masters and, abandoning his own, Adrien Sixte, an atheist and determinist, turns to the cavalry captain, represented as a model of virtue, honour and uprightness.[26]

Literary technique

In the debate over the definition of the novel that pitted Paul Bourget[27] against Albert Thibaudet[28] at the beginning of the 20th century, the author of The Disciple defended the idea of the traditional French novel: a work that tells a story, a plot, and in which each passage contributes to the final denouement with "a rare ability to penetrate the thoughts of others".[29] In this series of episodes designed to bring the story to its conclusion, the characters "are skilfully chosen examples"[30] who are mobilised for the final demonstration.[31]

Portrait of Hippolyte Taine, by Jean Béraud

However, this model of the novel as intellectual demonstration needs to be qualified. Although The Disciple is an edifying novel that teaches us about the dangers of having a maître à penser, Paul Bourget makes skilful use of narrative suspense and, despite his didactic tendencies, is a "remarkable storyteller and an undisputed master of intrigue".[32] This state of affairs allows the work to be "an entertaining novel", in the words of Richard Hibbitt, who believes that this duality between a demonstrative, edifying novel and an exciting (Greslou's death is an exciting plot), entertaining novel is due to the influence of Honoré de Balzac.[lower-alpha 10] In his New Pages of Criticism and Doctrine, Bourget explains the importance of this "hybridity of the novel", which is due to the combination of several elements, such as history, manners, passions and psychology: "In all his stories, these two contradictory elements: the frenzy of sensitivity and the rigour of the scientific thinker, blend together, very naturally, it seems. Wasn't his genius also a hybrid, made up of irreconcilable faculties?[33]

The literary technique, borrowed from the Balzacian novel, leaves a definite place for history while developing the "novelistic" motif of the force of passion (which is the subject of Greslou's study).[34] Robert Greslou's first work, which earned him the esteem of Adrien Sixte, was a manuscript entitled Contribution to the Multiplicity of the Self. In his meditations, Sixte wondered whether Greslou did not have an obscure feeling, whether he did not carry within him two states, two beings at last.[35]

Themes

The Disciple is preceded by a long preface with nationalist overtones, addressed to young people: "young man of my country, to you whom I know so well (and of whom I know nothing) except that you are more than eighteen and less than twenty-five, and that you go, seeking in our volumes, to us your elders, answers to the questions that torment you". Bourget continued his address: "And the answers you find in these volumes will determine a little of your moral life, a little of your soul; — and your moral life is the moral life of France itself; your soul is her soul". In this preface, Paul Bourget invites the young man of 1889 to reflect on Greslou's adventure. He begs young people "to work for the recovery of the country that was once so low".[36]

Renan in his study in the College of France

It was shortly after Physiology of Modern Love (1889), in The Disciple, that Paul Bourget brought moral concerns to the fore. The book "marked an important date in the history of French thought. It is from this time on that the reaction against the 'intellectualism' of the nineteenth century may be said to date."[37] In The Disciple, he develops the question of responsibility, particularly that of the writer or philosopher, who is responsible for the consequences of his writings. Few works of this nature," noted Victor Giraud, a contemporary of Paul Bourget, "have had such an effect on minds, on souls and on consciences themselves, and have caused such an upheaval."[38] According to Jean-Christophe Coulot, "constructed according to a rigorous dramatic progression, this novel illustrates Bourget's preoccupation with evil, through the responsibility of a philosophical work on the mind of a young student ".[39] He adds that the novel is more than "two hundred pages of methodically conducted experimental psychology".

It should be noted, however, that although The Disciple is considered to be the first novel by the "second" Paul Bourget, he had already introduced the notions of the responsibility of thought guides, the superiority of action, and salvation through pity and faith in Mensonges (1887), through of one of his characters, Abbé Taconet. With this novel, Bourget, one of Taine's "sons between science and morality",[40] achieved the essence of the spiritualist reinterpretation of positivism, whose figure in the novel is the philosopher Adrien Sixte, the teacher of his disciple, Robert Greslou. The tragic story of Robert Greslou, a young student tutor to the Marquis de Jussat — who becomes a murderer — runs through the entire work. This young disciple, from a modest background and therefore incapable of mastering the abstract knowledge of the revered scholar, is intended as a demonstration of the need to reject the figure of the prophetic scholar in the name of a "paradigm of responsibility".[41] "The writer cannot place himself outside the social order", explains George Steiner, who also analyses The Disciple in the context of the moral responsibility of teachers and professors in general, developing the notion of "intellectual abuse".[42]

"Bourget shows [...] what human relation becomes when one human being seeks to know another by loveless investigation."[43] The science of the old scholar Adrien Sixte, who also borrows from the character of the positivist Ernest Renan, is not guilty, but it is insufficient[44] because it fails to extend its competence "to the extreme limits of morality".[45] Salvation, then, lies not in science but in an optimistic interpretation of the Unknowable.[lower-alpha 11] Bourget set out to establish this truth: "To touch the moral life you need God. To put into this word God what I see and feel in it: the belief that this obscure world has a meaning analogous to our soul".[lower-alpha 12] The novelist thus denounces the dangers of a narrow positivism whose negations threaten the soul; he thus becomes the defender of religious sentiment.

Reception

A literary event

The Disciple was an immediate and resounding success, with Alphonse Lemerre selling 22,000 copies in six weeks.[48] Critics were unanimous in calling the novel "a literary event" (Le Gaulois), a "book of the first order" (Les Débats), a "powerful work that rightly revolutionised France" (La Nouvelle Revue), "one of the masterpieces of our language" (La Revue bleue) and "the most beautiful and virile of novels" (Polybiblion). "Le Disciple impresses us as being the most intellectual and the most coherently philosophical of the author’s novels," the critic of Harper's wrote. "He confesses himself to have a particular affection for this work, which he cousiders, strangely enough, to be in a measure the counterpart of Robert Elsmere."[49] The preface to the novel, a veritable moral lesson and warning, was much praised by the critics; Le Figaro published it in its issue of 17 June 1889.

When he discovered the book, Hippolyte Taine thought he recognised himself in the features of Adrien Sixte. The painful impression caused by reading the novel led him to send Bourget a severe letter, since published in Taine's Correspondance[50] with Bourget's full assent. In his preface to the new edition of The Disciple published by Nelson (1910), Téodor de Wyzewa recalls the impression the novel made on the men of letters of his generation:

We wanted Mr Paul Bourget to share all the opinions we held dear, foremost among which was the absolute faith of the work of art over the rest of things. The doctrine that our predecessors had called 'art for art's sake' may have changed its name over the years, but it continued to appear to us as the first and only truth. We could not bear the idea that the artist, and in particular the man of letters, should ever have to concern himself with the moral significance of his work, or its consequences in practical life.
Each of us had the impression that M. Bourget, author of daring studies of contemporary psychology and a disillusioned ironist, agreed with us in his proud indifference to a basely 'bourgeois' reality.
What once outraged us as a sacrilegious attack on the eternal sovereignty of thought and art, we now all agree in proclaiming, and it is not so much that we think we have always accepted it. But no: it is M. Bourget's Disciple who deserves the credit for having taught us this.[51]

Quarrel of The Disciple

The publication of The Disciple provoked a fundamental debate between the proponents of scientism, who refused the traditionalist vision of this novel, represented by Anatole France,[52] and the partisans of morality and tradition, supported by Ferdinand Brunetière,[53] who placed morality above human thought. "Discredit of morality or discredit of science: these are the two total impressions left by this book" (Hippolyte Taine, 1889).

However, as Édouard Rod pointed out, "Paul Bourget's development was so rapid that the new man was born in him before the old man had finished dying. Thus, while the preface to The Disciple is the work of the former, the novel itself is still largely the work of the latter [...] The case of M. Bourget is therefore rather singular; it is not only that of a rapid development which, in a few years, took a writer to the extreme opposite of the goal he seemed to be pursuing; it is that of a conflict between two beings who share a single consciousness and fight over it. This conflict is painful, and contributes greatly to the troubled impression conveyed by books like The Disciple, not only by their subject matter, but by the uncertainty of spirit, the vacillations of soul that they betray in the author."[54]

Legacy

By posing the problem of the writer's responsibility, The Disciple became a work that made it possible to show that "what is immoral cannot be true" for a whole generation of converted writers.[55] Bourget was perfectly in line with the doctrine of the Church, which ruled out the possibility of all conceptions having the right to exist; this is what Brunetière wanted to have accepted during the quarrel that pitted him against Anatole France: truth is determined by its social consequences. According to the philosopher George Fonsegrive, Lamennais's influence is undeniable.[56] After the Falloux law (1850), which liberalised Catholic education, an environment conducive to conversions developed until the end of the 1880s, and The Disciple was published in 1889.[57]

The themes of the scholar's guilt and the crisis of values in the modern world have not ceased to be exploited.[58] Italian literature bears the imprint of Paul Bourget's friendships and many transalpine journeys: Gabriele D'Annunzio drew inspiration from The Disciple for his Triumph of Death (1894).[59] Bourget's novel was one of Gladstone's favourite books.[1] John Cowper Powys listed The Disciple at number 33 in his One Hundred Best Books.[60]

The novel was adapted into a radio serial in 1960 under the title L'Affaire Greslou.

Notes

Footnotes

  1. ↑ Bourget, who had abandoned Catholicism in 1867, began a gradual return to it in 1889, fully converting only in 1901. In 1893, in an interview he gave in America, he spoke about his changed views: "For many years I, like most young men in modern cities, was content to drift along in agnosticism, but I was brought to my senses at last by the growing realization that...the life of a man who simply said 'I don't know, and not knowing I do the thing that pleases me,' was not only empty in itself and full of disappointment and suffering, but was a positive influence for evil upon the lives of others." On the other hand, "those men and women who follow the teachings of the church are in a great measure protected from the moral disasters which...almost invariably follow when men and women allow themselves to be guided and swayed by their senses, passions and weaknesses."[1]
  2. ↑ The term was coined by Henri Klerkx.[2]
  3. ↑ It has sometimes been said that Bourget was personally implicated during the trial, but there are no documents to confirm this. Albert Feuillerat notes, however, that the investigation revealed the part played by fictional literature, including the works of Bourget, in Chambige's condition.[6]
  4. ↑ Several of Paul Bourget's biographers, including J. Patin, Albert Autin and Albert Feuillerat, his brother-in-law, echo the novelist's denials about the supposed influence of this high-profile affair on his novel.[9] Despite the author's denials, the press suggested that the link between the affair and the novel was obvious: L'Illustration ironically announced the following prediction for January 1889 in its "prophetic almanac" column of 1 December 1888: "M. Paul Bourget publishes Physiology of Modern Murder with a letter-preface by M. Henri Chambige [sic].
  5. ↑ Antoine Compagnon gives a different date for the manuscript's entry into the national collections: Drouot sale, 5 February 1993.
  6. ↑ In French law, substitut is the term used to designate certain magistrates in the Public Prosecutor's Office who have been delegated (partially but permanently) authority by another magistrate of higher rank in the same court.
  7. ↑ According to Michel Mansuy, the final pages of the last part of The Disciple are appended to a copy of the novel that belonged to Geneviève Halévy, wife of Émile Straus, and which is now in the National Library (reserve) under no. 8° Z Don 595 (190).
  8. ↑ A form of flashback in which earlier parts of a narrative are related to others that have already been narrated.
  9. ↑ "The portrait of Adrien Sixte, the teacher, is, in part at least, a representation of Bourget's former master, Hippolyte Taine, whose teaching Bourget now repudiates."[21]
  10. ↑ Richard Hibbitt, Senior Lecturer in the Department of French at the University of Leeds, highlights Bourget's fascination with Balzac and the importance of his reading of Père Goriot at the age of 15.
  11. ↑ Paul Bourget does not sacrifice science to religion. He confined the former to the realm of the knowable, the latter to that of the Unknowable.[46] This notion of the "Unknowable" was the culmination of ten years of reflection by the novelist, who in 1880 had already read Herbert Spencer's First Principles, in which the distinction between the knowable and the Unknowable is set out, and in particular the way in which positive knowledge can be reconciled with a certain mysticism.[47] Bourget's duality does not, therefore, negate science for the sole benefit of religion, for in this novel the novelist's two natures collide, "his mind, formed by science, and his soul, formed by faith".[2]
  12. ↑ Diaries of Paul Bourget, Bibliothèque universitaire de Fels, Institut catholique de Paris, 1st November 1888 and 26 October 1888.

Citations

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "Paul Bourget in New York", The Pittsburg Press, August 21, 1893.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Klerkx, Henri (1946). Paul Bourget et ses idées littéraires. Nijmegen-Utrecht, p. 59.
  3. ↑ Mansuy (1960), pp. 482–83.
  4. ↑ Autin (1930), p. 38.
  5. ↑ Bataille, Albert (1888). Causes criminelles et mondaines de 1888. Paris: Dentu, p. ix.
  6. ↑ Feuillerat (1937), p. 140.
  7. ↑ Mansuy (1960), p. 485.
  8. ↑ Barrès, Maurice (11 novembre 1888). "La Sensibilité d'Henri Chambige," Le Figaro, No. 316, p. 1.
  9. ↑ Mansuy (1960), p. 488 (note 73).
  10. ↑ Mansuy (1960), p. 487.
  11. ↑ Mansuy (1960), p. 489.
  12. ↑ Feuillerat (1937), p. 141 (note 1).
  13. ↑ Hanotaux, Gabriel (1944). Mon Temps, Vol. 4. Paris: Plon, p. 277.
  14. ↑ Bordeaux, Henry (1954). Reconstructeurs et mainteneurs. Paris: Librairie Plon, p. 70; also see Louis Bertrand, "Bourget–le–Reconstructeur." In: Idées et Portraits. Paris: Plon (1927), p. 6.
  15. ↑ Bourget, Paul (1890). Un cœur de femme. Paris: Lemerre, pp. 213–14.
  16. ↑ Gruel, Louis (2004). "Petite histoire naturelle des bibliophiles," Revue Atala, No. 7,‎ p. 78.
  17. ↑ Mansuy (1960), p. 528.
  18. ↑ Berne, Mauricette (1997). "Les manuscrits de la BnF, acquisitions récentes," Bulletin des Bibliothèques de France, Vol. XLII, No. 2, p. 50 (note 2).
  19. ↑ Mansuy (1960), p. 531.
  20. ↑ Borie (2007), p. 17.
  21. ↑ Tomlinson, Muriel D. (1950). "Albert Thibaudet on the Control of Ideas," The Modern Language Journal, Vol. XXXIV, No. 1, pp. 61–65.
  22. ↑ Filon, Augustin (20 juillet 1889). "Courrier littéraire," Revue Bleue, No. 5, pp. 89–92.
  23. ↑ Bourget (1889), pp. 138, 188.
  24. ↑ Feuillerat (1937), p. 136.
  25. ↑ Chatterton-Hill, George (1913). "The Reawakening of France," The Nineteenth Century and After, Vol. LXXIV, No. 437, p. 31.
  26. ↑ Borie (2007), p. 19.
  27. ↑ Niogret, Philippe (2004). La revue Europe et les romans français de l'entre-deux-guerres (1923–1939). Paris: L'Harmattan.
  28. ↑ Thibaudet, Albert (1922). "La Composition dans le roman," La Nouvelle Revue française, Vol. XIX, No. 110,‎ pp. 594–604.
  29. ↑ Doumic, René (1895). Écrivains d'aujourd'hui. Paris, Perrin, p. 10.
  30. ↑ Raimond (1966), p. 418.
  31. ↑ Arland, Marcel (1952). Essais et Nouveaux essais critiques. Paris: Gallimard, p. 167.
  32. ↑ Hibbitt, Richard (2008). "Oscar Wilde et Paul Bourget: deux vies en parallèle," Rue des Beaux Arts, No. 17. Retrived 26 June 2016.
  33. ↑ Bourget, Paul (1922). Nouvelles Pages de critique et de doctrine, vol. 1. Paris: Plon, p. 58.
  34. ↑ Hibbitt, Richard (2008). "Le roman d'analyse et le romanesque, la représentation de l'héritage psychologique chez Paul Bourget." In: Christophe Reffait, ed., Romanesque et histoire. Amiens: Encrage Université.
  35. ↑ Bourget (1889), p. 65.
  36. ↑ Michel (1960), p. 504.
  37. ↑ Chatterton-Hill, George (1914). "The Evolution of Contemporary French Literature," The Edinburgh Review, Vol. CCXIX, No. 447, p. 64.
  38. ↑ Giraud, Victor (1911). "M. Paul Bourget." In: Les Maîtres de l'heure: essais d'histoire morale contemporaine, Vol. 1. Paris: Hachette, p. 277.
  39. ↑ Coulot, Jean-Christophe (1994). "Avant-propos à Paul Bourget." In: Paul Bourget, Le Disciple. Paris: La Table Ronde, p. vi.
  40. ↑ Loué, Thomas (1996). "Les Fils de Taine, entre science et morale. À propos du Disciple de P. Bourget," Cahiers d'Histoire, Revue d'histoire critique, No. 65, p. 44–61.
  41. ↑ Sapiro, Gisèle (2001). "La responsabilité de l'écrivain: de Paul Bourget à Jean-Paul Sartre." In: Michael Einfalt & Joseph Jurt, eds., Le texte et le contexte, Analyses du champ littéraire français (XIXe siècle et XXe siècle), Vol. 9. Paris: Éditions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, Étude du Centre Français de l'Université de Fribourg, pp. 219–40.
  42. ↑ Steiner, George (2003). Lessons of the Masters. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, pp. 97, 99.
  43. ↑ Anon. (1890). "Le Disciple," The Spectator, Vol. LXV, No. 3240, p. 152.
  44. ↑ Moreau, Pierre (1946). Victor Giraud. Paris: Bonne Presse, p. 116.
  45. ↑ Mansuy (1960), p. 499.
  46. ↑ Bourget, Le Disciple (1889), p. 20.
  47. ↑ Ritter, Charles (1911). Charles Ritter, ses amis et ses maîtres, choix de lettres (1859–1905). Lausanne: Payot, Eugène Ritter, p. 289.
  48. ↑ Mansuy (1960), p. 505.
  49. ↑ Child, Theodore (1892). "Literary Paris," Harper's New Monthly Magazine, Vol. LXXXV, No. 507, p. 335.
  50. ↑ H. Taine, sa vie et sa correspondance. Tome IV. Les dernières années (1876-1893). Paris: Hachette (1907), pp. 287–93.
  51. ↑ Wyzewa, Téodor de (1910). "Introduction." In: Paul Bourget, Le Disciple. Paris/Londres/Edimbourg: Nelson, pp. 10–11.
  52. ↑ Le Temps (23 juin 1889), p. 2; Le Temps (7 juillet 1889), p. 2; also see Craig Jr, Horace S. (1938). "Anatole France and Paul Bourget's Le Disciple," The Modern Language Forum, Vol. XXIII, No. 3, pp. 125–31.
  53. ↑ Brunetière, Ferdinand (1890). "A Propos du Disciple." In: Nouvelles Questions de critique. Paris: Calmann-Lévy, pp. 330–55.
  54. ↑ Rod, Édouard (1892). "M. Paul Bourget." In: Les Idées morales du temps présent. Paris: Perrin, pp. 107–08.
  55. ↑ Colin, Pierre (1997). L'Audace et le soupçon. La crise du modernisme dans le catholicisme français (1893-1914). Paris,: Desclée, pp. 477, 478.
  56. ↑ Fonsegrive, George (1917). De Taine à Péguy. L'évolution des idées dans la France contemporaine. Paris: Bloud et Gay, pp. 68–78.
  57. ↑ Serry, Hervé (2002). "Littérature et religion catholique (1880‑1914). Contribution à une socio-histoire de la croyance," Cahiers d’histoire. Revue d’histoire critique, No. 87, pp. 37–59.
  58. ↑ Macherey, Pierre (1993). "Peut-on encore aujourd'hui lire Le Disciple de Paul Bourget?," Le Trimestre psychanalytique, L'Association freudienne internationale, No. 2, pp. 63–70.
  59. ↑ Bordeaux (1954), pp. 176–77.
  60. ↑ Powys, John Cowper (1916). One Hundred Best Books. New York: G. Arnold Shaw, pp. 33–34.

References

Autin, Albert (1930). Le Disciple de Paul Bourget. Paris: Edgar Malfère.
Ayme, J. (1890). 'Une vieille question à propos du Disciple," La Nouvelle revue, Vol. LXVI, pp. 368–83.
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